Indian Knowledge System

Public Policy

The root of happiness is Dharma (ethics, righteousness), the root of Dharma is Artha (economy, polity), the root of Artha is right governance. Kautilya, Chankaya Sutra 1-6

Public Administration has been an integral aspect of civilized society since its inception. Historical records indicate that foundational elements of public administration, including financial management, military organization, personnel management, law enforcement, judicial processes, and local governance, were documented in Kautilya’s Artha Shastra.

The sources of knowledge regarding ancient Indian administrative systems reveal a theoretical framework intertwined with various disciplines such as politics, ethics, and law, which persisted over an extended period. These sources include the Vedas, Hindu Epics, Smritis, Puranas, Buddhist and Jain religious texts, historical and dramatic literature, accounts from foreign travelers, epigraphic inscriptions, and several treatises specifically addressing political matters (Banerjea, 1916). Furthermore, regional literature from India, written in languages such as Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Tamil, and others, offers valuable insights into the nation’s public policy and social dynamics.

The framework of Indian administration is predominantly a remnant of British colonial rule. Key structural and functional components of Indian Administration, such as the secretariat system, all-India services, recruitment and training processes, office protocols, local governance, district administration, budgeting, auditing, centralization tendencies, police administration, and revenue management, can be traced back to British influences.

Academic discourse has predominantly relied on Western frameworks regarding the concept of Public Administration. In contemporary India, the examination of historical thought is primarily influenced by Western perspectives.

This paper argues that an overemphasis on historical origins is detrimental, as the identity of a region is intrinsically connected to how its practitioners interpret their history.

The current study aims to articulate the core principles of Public Administration and its significance by exploring elements found in regional Indian literature. It investigates articles published in Indian texts to assess the extent of research concerning the historical foundations of the field within India.

One of the earliest and most significant works in ancient Indian political philosophy, the Arthashastra, is credited to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya). This treatise outlines principles of statecraft, economic strategies, military tactics, and administrative guidelines that were essential for early governance. Scholars have thoroughly examined its influence on public policy, particularly its methodical approach to governance and legal administration.

India's regional literature, which encompasses a wide array of linguistic and cultural contexts, offers significant insights into public policy and governance, mirroring the intricate dynamics of the nation's administration. This paper examines how authors from Bengali, Kannada, Marathi, Tamil and Telegu traditions have addressed these subjects, utilizing specific literary works and their socio-political backgrounds, bolstered by thorough analysis and citations.

The research aims to scientifically investigate public administration and institutions, which have long been central to assessing the effectiveness of governmental powers. The paper is organized into six sections, emphasizing the importance of public policy and institutions in (i) Government (Sarkar), (ii) Society (Samaj), and (iii) Market (Bazar).

I- Public Policy and Government:

The earliest records concerning the inhabitants and kingdoms of South India are derived from three primary sources: the inscriptions of Ashoka, the Sangam literature, and the writings of Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court. Among these, the Sangam literature, which dates from the fifth century BCE to the third century CE, stands out as the most significant source for understanding the early South Indian states.

Composed in Tamil, this body of work consists of odes, lyrics, and idylls created by poets and scholars for presentation at three literary assemblies known as "Sangam," established by the Pandyan rulers. It provides valuable insights into the monarchies and their governance strategies.

Sangam literature, recognized as the earliest Tamil literary tradition, includes contributions from various authors such as Tolkappiyar, Thiruvalluvar, Ilango Adigal, and Seetalaisattanar, among others. Historical documents indicate that monarchy was the prevailing form of governance during this era. The kings held centralized administrative power and were viewed as divine representatives. In their courts, kings engaged with the populace, listened to their grievances, and dispensed justice. The administration of the Sangam Age was supported by a variety of officials to ensure effective governance. Two councils were established to assist the king with his daily administrative duties. Each kingdom was subdivided into provinces, each overseen by a viceroy responsible for tax collection, maintaining law and order, and managing provincial affairs. Villages were governed by a council of elders. Revenue collection methods varied based on the resources being appropriated; for instance, land revenue rates differed across various regions. Additionally, the kingdoms maintained robust military forces to safeguard against external threats (https://cbc.gov.in/cbcdev/sangam/sangam.html)

Referring to Kautilya's work, it is evident that the Central Administration was managed by the King with the support of several Ministers or Chief Officers of State. Kautilya asserted that governance relies on collaboration, stating that a single wheel cannot move on its own. Consequently, he stressed the importance of the King appointing ministers and following their counsel. Kautilya outlined numerous ideal qualities for a Minister, which include possessing a strong memory, capability, eloquence, intelligence, enthusiasm, endurance, dignity, and grandeur. Additionally, a Minister should have a pure character, a deep commitment to the State's interests, exemplary conduct, physical strength, good health, and courage. Furthermore, they should be free from procrastination and indecisiveness, and exhibit a loving disposition, among other attributes. (Arthasastra, Bk. I. ch. 7.)

II- Public Institution and Government:

The Assembly consisted of two types: the Samiti and the Sabha. The Samiti functioned as a general assembly of the populace, convened for significant events such as the election of a king. In contrast, the Sabha was a less formal assembly that met more frequently. This Assembly engaged in discussions concerning various state matters, including executive, judicial, and military affairs. Villages were equipped not only with public halls and educational institutions, such as temples, mathas, and monasteries, but also with schools dedicated to learning. Chanakya notes that in cases of differing opinions (dvaidhibhave), the judgment of the majority of honest individuals (bahavah suchayah) should be upheld. While this principle pertains to village meetings aimed at resolving boundary disputes, it is likely that it also extended to the decisions made by other assemblies. Furthermore, regarding the procedures of the King's Council, Chanakya asserts that the majority's decision should take precedence

The expansion of the King's power resulted in the replacement of the Great Council (Raja-sabha, Raja-samiti) and the Privy Council (Mantri-parishat) with the traditional gatherings of the populace. Furthermore, the emergence of a fully established caste system contributed to the fragmentation of the national assembly into various religious and caste groups, which eventually incorporated trade and guild associations (puga, sreni, etc.).

Prior to any significant administrative decision, discussions were held within the Council of Ministers (Mantri-parishat). This Council consisted of high-ranking state officials along with a few additional members who did not hold any official position. The topics addressed during these meetings encompassed all matters impacting the State's interests.

Specifically, Chanakya (Arthasastra, Bk. I. ch. 14) identifies five key areas of focus: initiating actions, managing resources and personnel for implementation, determining the suitable timing and location for actions, taking precautions against potential risks, and identifying strategies for achieving ultimate success.

In the Deccan region, the influence of local associations and assemblies was relatively subtle. Instead of corporate institutions, local dignitaries known as mahajanas participated in the administration of villages and towns during the Chalukya period. In these villages, the mahajanas were led by a figure referred to as the gamunda, or headman. Unlike their counterparts in southern India, these notables did not possess the same level of autonomy and were subject to close oversight by state officials.

The kingdom was organized into a structured hierarchy of administrative divisions, which in the Deccan were termed vishaya, ahara, rashtra, among others. Beginning in the eighth century A.D., a trend emerged in the Deccan to segment kingdoms into hierarchical units based on multiples of ten villages, with districts occasionally comprising twelve villages.

Additionally, there were three significant territorial assemblies: ur, sabha, and nagaram. The ur was a village assembly that did not include Brahmins, while the sabha was exclusively composed of Brahmin members. The nagaram, on the other hand, was dominated by mercantile interests, although it also encompassed some agricultural concerns. Assembly members convened annually, while a smaller executive committee managed daily operations. Each group operated independently according to its own constitution, which was rooted in local customs and practices, addressing the issues faced by its members at the community level. For matters impacting multiple assemblies or associations, decisions were reached through collective discussion.

The local administration facilitated by these corporate units significantly alleviated the government's responsibilities. This system not only provided a platform for the populace to express their grievances and concerns but also placed the onus on the community to address these issues. Consequently, this arrangement reinforced the state's foundation by reducing opposition, as citizens could not hold the government accountable for local matters.

III- Public policy and Society:

During the early Vedic Age, societal organization was quite straightforward, characterized by the absence of class distinctions, where every individual was regarded as equal (Banerjee, 2016). However, as civilization advanced, the complexities and diversities of life necessitated a division of labor among the populace.

In the fourth century B.C. Megasthenes noted that individuals were prohibited from marrying outside their caste, changing professions, or engaging in multiple trades. Nevertheless, the growing variety of occupations led to the emergence of numerous mixed castes.

Manu explained the responsibilities associated with each caste: the Brahmanas were tasked with teaching, studying, conducting sacrifices, engaging in charitable acts, and accepting gifts; the Kshatriyas were responsible for protecting the populace, performing sacrifices, studying, and maintaining a detachment from pleasures; the Vaisyas engaged in cattle-rearing, agriculture, charitable activities, sacrifices, study, trade, and money-lending; while the Sudras were designated to serve the other three castes. Additionally, Chanakya (Arthasastra, Bk. I. ch. 3) included agriculture, arts, and crafts as part of the Sudras' responsibilities, and the Vishnu Smriti (Vishnu Smriti (ed. by J. Jolly), ch. 2) recognized all industrial arts (sarva-silpani) as falling within their domain. The Mahabharata also assigns similar duties to the various caste members.

However, in the modern literature, the contemporary authors have depicted the social evils in their work. This is being reflected in reginal literature across India.

Munshi Premchand, a trailblazer in Hindi and Urdu social fiction, is celebrated for his authentic representation of Indian society, especially during the colonial era. His literary works often illuminate the challenges faced by ordinary individuals against oppressive structures, such as the British administrative system and entrenched societal conventions. In his novel Godan (1936), Premchand portrays the exploitation of farmers by landlords and moneylenders, often aided by corrupt officials, thereby revealing bureaucratic shortcomings and social disparities. His short stories, including "Shatranj Ke Khiladi," depict the apathy of the elite towards governance, offering a critique of administrative failures during colonial rule. These narratives advocate for social justice and reform, highlighting the influence of public policy on rural communities and social frameworks.

In the realm of Bengali literature, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's Anandamath (1882) stands as a pivotal work that galvanized the Indian independence movement while critiquing colonial governance and societal conventions. Set against the backdrop of the Sannyasi Rebellion against the British East India Company, the novel underscores the exploitative essence of colonial rule, engaging with themes of governance and resistance, and features the song "Vande Mataram," which emerged as a symbol of national identity .

Rabindranath Tagore, another distinguished figure, examined the effects of governmental policies and societal transformations in Ghare Baire (The Home and the World, 1916), which is situated within the context of the Swadeshi movement. The novel explores the tensions between tradition and modernity, reflecting on political activism and its repercussions on personal lives, thus providing insights into the dynamics between the state and society. These literary works emphasize the significance of literature in critiquing both colonial and post-colonial governance and societal norms.

Vijay Tendulkar, a distinguished figure in Marathi literature, is renowned for his sharp social and political insights. His play Ghashiram Kotwal, first staged in Pune in 1972, serves as a satirical examination of power and corruption within the historical framework of the Peshwa era. Through the character of Ghashiram, who ascends to power through cunning and deceit, Tendulkar offers a critique of the misuse of authority and the moral decline prevalent in administrative systems, thereby illuminating the dynamics of societal power. An article in the Rupkatha Journal discusses the play's significance in relation to modern politics, emphasizing its observations on governance and social structures (Balancing Tradition and Modernity: A reading of Tendulkar’s Ghashiram Kotwal – Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities). This work transcends its historical context, providing enduring insights into public institutions and societal values.

In Tamil literature, Kalki Krishnamurthy is acclaimed for his historical and social novels that frequently tackle political and societal themes. His novel Thyaga Bhoomi, serialized in Ananda Vikatan in 1939, critiques colonial policies while celebrating Mahatma Gandhi's principles and emphasizing the struggle for independence. This novel, which was later adapted into a film that faced a ban from the British authorities, explores the societal repercussions of colonial rule and the ensuing resistance, advocating for social and political reform . An article on realism in modern Indian literature from Indianetzone highlights regional crises, such as the Bengal famine and peasant revolts, depicted in fiction, suggesting that Kalki's work aligns with this tradition of social critique.

IV- Public Institution and Society:

Ancient Indian society was structured in a multifaceted manner, with institutions that intertwined the sacred and the secular. Public assemblies facilitated collective decision-making and served as a counterbalance to the authority of rulers, while state-sponsored public works aimed to promote unity and social cohesion. Various public institutions in ancient India, ranging from the centralized bureaucracy described in the Arthashastra to the participatory assemblies of the Janapadas and renowned educational centers like Nalanda, fulfilled a dual purpose. They not only maintained order and provided public services but also encouraged intellectual and cultural advancement.

The interaction between the state, religion, and education contributed to a society that valued both public service and individual spiritual and intellectual growth. For example, the Mauryan state under Emperor Ashoka made significant investments in public infrastructure, including roads, irrigation systems, and hospitals. Ashoka’s edicts, carved into rock and pillar, not only disseminated his vision of Dhamma (ethical living) but also reflected a strong administrative commitment to societal welfare.

Regarding the Mauryan economic framework, state institutions played a crucial role in enhancing agriculture, production, mining, tax collection, trade, and commerce, as well as in maintaining socio-economic records. Notably, international trade in goods and services was acknowledged as a means to augment the wealth of both the sovereign and his subjects (Mukherjee, 1976).

Ancient Indian society was structured in a multifaceted manner, incorporating both sacred and secular elements within its institutions. Public assemblies played a crucial role in collective decision-making, serving as a counterbalance to the authority of rulers. Additionally, the state's public works initiatives aimed to promote social cohesion and stability. Various public institutions in ancient India, ranging from the centralized bureaucracy outlined in the Arthashastra to the participatory assemblies, highlight the necessity of institutional oversight. This is particularly evident in Book Four of the Arthashastra, titled "Keeping Watch Over Traders," which asserts that merchants, while not explicitly labeled as thieves, often engage in practices that oppress the populace.

The text warns against their tendency to collude in order to manipulate prices for excessive profit or to trade in stolen goods. The Arthashastra emphasizes the importance of fair economic exchanges, taking into consideration factors such as investment, quantity, duties, interest, rent, and other expenses. Consequently, it stipulates that merchants should be allowed a profit margin of 5% on locally produced goods and 10% on imported items. Violations of these regulations were met with severe penalties. Furthermore, the state was responsible for establishing and maintaining trade routes, constructing long-distance roads that enhanced mobility and facilitated the transport of goods and surplus production across regions. The Mauryan state also invested in other infrastructure projects, such as agricultural irrigation, as noted by historical figures like Megasthenes and Strabo, as well as in the Dharmaśaśtras. Additionally, the state designated specific areas within towns for various trades and crafts to operate efficiently.

Goods were not sold directly at production sites; instead, they were transported to local markets. This approach allowed the State to effectively regulate the flow of goods, manage pricing and profits, and prevent tax evasion. Trade activities were meticulously documented, including details about merchants and the quantities of goods involved (Rooney, J., & Murthy, V. 2020). In ancient India, public institutions played a crucial role in managing everyday life while also fostering significant cultural and intellectual exchanges. Their governance, educational frameworks, and public welfare initiatives left a lasting impact on subsequent eras, continuing to influence contemporary discussions on public administration and social policy.

Renowned institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda, and Vikramashila emerged as prominent centers of higher education, welcoming students from diverse regions. These educational establishments not only imparted knowledge of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain philosophies but also covered disciplines like astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. They were instrumental in shaping the intellectual landscape both within India and in neighboring regions.

Table: Summary of Public Institutions and Societal Roles

V- Public Policy and Market:

Market and trade centers were integral to the economic framework of ancient India. They functioned not only as venues for the exchange of goods but also as vital social and cultural gathering places. These markets were managed by various guilds and associations, notably the shreni, which played a crucial role in overseeing trade and commerce. The emergence of powerful empires, such as the Mauryas and Guptas, led to the establishment of well-structured market centers and effective trade networks that extended throughout the Indian subcontinent and beyond.

Ancient Indian trading centers engaged in international commerce, attracting traders from the Roman Empire, China, and Southeast Asia. For example, the Romans utilized the port city of Arikamedu, located on India's eastern coast, as a key commercial center, where they exchanged Indian textiles and spices for imported items such as wine, olive oil, and glassware. (Kallie Szczepanski, 2020)

Some distinctive features of the Indian market include:

1. Variety of Products: India's diverse topography and climate have led to the production of a wide range of natural resources, such as precious metals, spices, and textiles, which were highly sought after globally. Consequently, India emerged as a crucial center for trade and commerce, attracting traders and merchants from regions as distant as China and the Mediterranean (Goswami, 2008).
2. Urban Design: Ancient Indian trading centers exhibited remarkable planning and organization, characterized by grid layouts for streets, markets, and residential areas. A notable example is the city of Mohenjo-daro from the Indus Valley Civilization, which featured a meticulously designed grid system, public buildings, granaries, and an advanced drainage infrastructure (Kenoyer J M, 2006).
3. Guilds and Associations: The trading centers of ancient India were often organized around guilds or associations responsible for regulating commerce, maintaining quality standards, and safeguarding the rights of their members (Kulke H & Rothermund D, 2004).
4. Monetary and Banking Systems: The trading hubs of ancient India boasted sophisticated monetary and banking systems. For instance, during the Mauryan period, punch-marked coins served as currency, and Emperor Ashoka established a banking system to oversee trade and financial activities (Kosambi D D, 1965).
5. Complex Trade Networks: Ancient Indian trade hubs were integral to intricate commercial networks that spanned the Indian subcontinent and beyond. Traders exchanged goods through a network of intermediaries along established land and maritime routes (Sen Tensen, 2003). Religious and Cultural Importance: Many ancient Indian trading centers were also significant religious and cultural sites,housing important temples and pilgrimage destinations. For example, Varanasi was not only a major trade and business hub but also a vital pilgrimage site for Hindus.
6. The application of technology can be traced back to ancient Indian trading centers, where early adopters utilized bullock carts and boats for transportation, alongside harnessing wind and water energy for milling and grinding processes. (Chakravarti R, 1999)

The Jatakas, dating from 300 BCE to 400 CE, consistently mention a standard set of 18 significant handicrafts. These include the trades of woodworkers, blacksmiths, leather artisans, painters, stone carvers, ivory craftsmen, weavers, confectioners, jewelers, gem workers, potters, and makers of bows and arrows, among others. Carpenters played a vital role in constructing various types of carts, known as ydna, ratha, and sakata, as well as furniture, building woodwork, and seafaring vessels. The mining sector was also crucial during this period.

Megasthenes notes that substantial quantities of gold, silver, copper, and iron were mined, which were then fashioned into utilitarian and decorative items, as well as weapons and military gear during the Mauryan era. Markets for perishable goods were typically situated outside city gates. For instance, there was a fish market at the gate of Sravasti, greengrocers at the four gates of UttaraPanchala, and four market towns, known as nigamas, located in the suburbs of Mithila, referred to as Yava-majjhako, one of which is depicted in a sculpture at Bharhut.

Loans were secured against gold items, such as rings, or through the personal guarantees of debtors. These loans accrued interest known as Vriddhi. Legal protections were in place for debtors, prohibiting (1) compound interest, (2) interest rates exceeding customary levels, (3) interest that equaled the principal amount, (4) personal servitude as a substitute for interest payments, and (5) excessively high interest rates agreed upon under duress. The standard interest rate was set at 15% per annum, with higher rates applicable to unsecured loans (Manusmriti VIII. 140-153).

Hereditary artisans, residing in designated areas, organized themselves under a leader known as a Jetthaka or Pamukha, who functioned similarly to an alderman or president. This guild possessed the authority to make both executive and judicial decisions. Kautilya's Arthashastra includes numerous passages that emphasize the considerable wealth and importance of these guilds. In an ideal urban layout, specific chambers were allocated for each guild. The guilds operated similarly to banks, accepting long-term deposits with the understanding that the annual earnings would be directed towards designated charitable causes.

Table: Summary of Public Policy and Market Dynamics by Period

VI- Public Institution and market:

Trade and industry in ancient India were highly structured and efficient. The region engaged in the extraction of minerals from ores and maintained a monopoly on salt production, granting permits to private lessees of salt fields. The government regulated the production and distribution of wines and alcoholic beverages, as well as overseeing its own industries for cotton, oil, and sugar.

Additionally, the state monopolized the manufacturing of weapons and the construction of boats and ships. Trade was subject to various taxes, including export and import duties, octroi, and excise taxes. The movement of goods across the country was frequently interrupted for tax collection at different checkpoints.

Foreign merchants faced significant taxation at the borders through transit duties (vartani) and tolls (sulka), along with octroi fees at city gates, which were closely monitored by customs officials. These officials were empowered to detain merchants who attempted to evade taxation.

Despite the burdens of taxation, trade benefited from the protection provided by the state. Security measures were in place throughout trade routes, and the government compensated for losses incurred during transit through its agents. Furthermore, village headmen were held accountable for any losses that occurred within their jurisdictions.

Trade guilds, referred to as shreni, operated as semi-independent economic organizations similar to contemporary corporations. They possessed the power to own assets, implement quality control measures, and offer banking services. Collectively, these public institutions and market mechanisms established a structure that safeguarded and encouraged economic activities.

The government's involvement in infrastructure development and regulatory supervision was crucial for the thriving of markets, while market entities such as guilds not only supported trade but also played a role in financing public initiatives, thereby enhancing societal stability and growth.

Indian Knowledge System and Indian Language