Introduction

Access to safe drinking water is not merely a fundamental human right; it is a cornerstone of public health, economic development, and social equity. In rural India, where water scarcity and inadequate infrastructure pose significant challenges, the quest for reliable water supply becomes even more critical. India, with approximately 18% of the world's population and 15% of its cattle, paradoxically possesses only 4% of the global freshwater resources. This scarcity, compounded by rapid population growth, economic expansion, and the looming threat of climate change, creates an urgent need for effective water management strategies.

Over the past century, global water usage has surged sixfold, and India is no exception to this trend. The increasing demand for water across residential, industrial, agricultural, and recreational sectors has intensified competition for this vital resource. Consequently, managing drinking water has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges for governments worldwide. In India, this challenge is further exacerbated by issues such as over-extraction leading to groundwater depletion, inadequate recharge, irregular rainfall patterns, pollution, and poor operation and maintenance of water delivery systems.

Recognizing the critical importance of addressing these challenges, the Indian government has launched a series of ambitious initiatives aimed at improving water supply services, particularly in rural areas. Among these initiatives, the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme, introduced under the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) in 2019, stands out as a transformative effort to provide Functional Household Tap Connections (FHTCs) to every rural household by 2024. This initiative not only aims to expand access to safe drinking water but also emphasizes the sustainable management of local water resources.

Overview of the Jal Jeevan Mission

The Jal Jeevan Mission represents a significant evolution in the governance of water supply in India. Historically, the governance framework has undergone substantial transformations, beginning with the National Water Supply Programme initiated in 1954. Over the decades, various programmes have been implemented, culminating in the establishment of the National Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) in 1986 and the National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) in 2009. These initiatives have increasingly emphasized decentralized approaches, community participation, and the involvement of local governance structures, such as Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).

The JJM not only seeks to provide FHTCs to every rural household but also promotes holistic water resource management, focusing on conservation and sustainability. By empowering local communities through decentralized management, the mission aims to foster a sense of ownership and responsibility among residents. Institutional arrangements involving the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) and Rural Water Supply (RWS) departments play a crucial role in supporting Gram Panchayats in organizing and maintaining village water supply systems. Furthermore, initiatives like the National Water Quality Sub Mission (NWQSM) and the Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance (WQM&S) programme have been introduced to address water quality issues and empower communities to monitor their water supply actively.

Demographic Profile of Kancheepuram District

Kancheepuram district, located in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, is known for its rich cultural heritage and historical significance. The district has a population of approximately 2.18 million people, with a diverse demographic profile that includes various communities and socio-economic backgrounds. The district comprises 274 village panchayats and 1,354 habitations, with a significant portion of the population engaged in agriculture and related activities.

The geographical features of Kancheepuram include a mix of urban and rural areas, with a climate that supports both agricultural and industrial activities. The district is endowed with several water bodies, including minor irrigation tanks and ponds, which play a crucial role in the local water supply system. However, like many regions in India, Kancheepuram faces challenges related to water scarcity, particularly during dry seasons.

The implementation of the Jal Jeevan Mission in Kancheepuram has been noteworthy, with the district achieving 100% coverage of FHTCs within a short period. This success can be attributed to effective planning, strong community engagement, and proactive water quality monitoring. The establishment of numerous Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs) and high levels of community participation fostered a sense of ownership among residents, ensuring the sustainability of water supply systems.

The Problem

Despite the successes achieved in Kancheepuram district, challenges persist in other districts across Tamil Nadu. A comprehensive case study of Kancheepuram could provide valuable insights into the operational, technical, and organizational frameworks that can be applied to address the issues faced by other districts. Understanding these frameworks is essential for enhancing the effectiveness of the Har Ghar Jal scheme and ensuring the long-term sustainability of rural water supply services.

Literature Review

The literature on rural water supply services in India highlights both the challenges and opportunities associated with improving access to safe drinking water. A pivotal study by Chaudhuri et al., (2020) evaluated the operational performance of RWSS in India from 2013 to 2018. The authors emphasized the necessity for a nationwide spatial appraisal of RWSS performance, integrating both technical and policy dimensions to ensure sustainable delivery systems. They identified critical issues that needed to be addressed in RWSS design, particularly the enhancement of quantity and quality control mechanisms. However, their study did not delve deeply into the specific factors that contributed to successful implementation at the district level, which this research sought to explore.

Paul and Sarkhel, (2022) assessed the effectiveness of decentralized reforms in increasing drinking water coverage in rural areas. Utilizing data from the Integrated Management Information System (IMIS), the researchers found that the exclusive role of Gram Panchayats in managing village drinking water projects was instrumental in improving access. However, they noted a concerning correlation between low groundwater availability and reduced FHTC coverage, indicating that regional water resource conditions significantly impacted the effectiveness of water supply initiatives.

Agarwal and Narain, (1999) explored the significance of water harvesting in their influential study, "Making Water Management Everybody’s Business: Water Harvesting and Rural Development in India." They highlighted that despite India being one of the wettest countries, a substantial portion of its water resources remained untapped. The authors underscored traditional water management practices in Tamil Nadu, such as the "system tanks" approach, which effectively utilized rainwater harvesting. Their findings emphasized the necessity of community involvement in water management to enhance sustainability and resilience.

Prasad et al., (2014) addressed the challenges of sustainable water quality management in rural areas in their study, "Reforming Rural Drinking Water Schemes: The Case of Raigad District in Maharashtra." They stressed the importance of capacity development at all levels to ensure effective monitoring of water quality. The study pointed out that while the shift from surface water to groundwater mitigated some microbiological issues, it also introduced new challenges, such as fluorosis and arsenicosis. The authors called for comprehensive water quality management plans that addressed technical, institutional, and legal components to safeguard public health. This study, however, did not explore the specific mechanisms for ensuring water quality in the context of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme, which this research aimed to investigate.

Joshi and Palanisami, (2011) investigated the impact of eucalyptus plantations on groundwater availability in their study, "Impact of Eucalyptus Plantations on Ground Water Availability in South Karnataka." They found that large-scale eucalyptus plantations significantly reduced groundwater supplies due to the species' high water consumption rates. This study highlighted the need for careful consideration of land use practices and their implications for water resources, particularly in water-stressed regions.

The operational guidelines for the implementation of the Jal Jeevan Mission, (2019) outline a comprehensive framework for achieving universal access to safe drinking water in rural areas. These guidelines emphasize a decentralized approach, community participation, and the establishment of Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs) to ensure local ownership and accountability. Additionally, the guidelines stress the importance of integrating water conservation measures and sustainable practices into the planning and execution of water supply projects.

Despite the significant progress made in improving rural water supply services in India, the literature reveals critical gaps in understanding the specific factors that contributed to successful implementation at the district level, the integration of traditional practices with modern initiatives, and the mechanisms for ensuring water quality within the context of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme. This study aimed to address these gaps by investigating the successful elements of Kancheepuram's implementation and contrasting them with the challenges faced in Pudukkottai.

By analyzing the unique elements of Kancheepuram's approach, including institutional mechanisms, community involvement, and sustainability measures, this research sought to identify best practices that could be replicated in other regions. The findings from this study contributed to the broader discourse on sustainable water management in India and informed policy decisions aimed at enhancing the effectiveness of rural water supply initiatives. Ultimately, this research aspired to provide actionable insights that could help bridge the gap in water access across different districts, ensuring that all rural households could benefit from reliable and safe drinking water.

Objectives

The primary objectives of this study were to evaluate the service delivery and functionality of Functional Household Tap Water Connections (FHTCs) in Kancheepuram district, examine the financial, operational, and institutional obstacles to the long-term viability of water supply infrastructure and sources in Pudukkottai district, and assess the feasibility of replicating the successful elements of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme in other districts facing challenges in implementation. Additionally, the study aimed to identify best practices in community engagement, planning, and resource management that contributed to the successful implementation of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme in Kancheepuram, as well as analyze the challenges faced by Pudukkottai district in achieving FHTC coverage and propose actionable recommendations for improvement.

The research was guided by the following questions:

• What factors contributed to the successful implementation of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme in Kancheepuram district?

• How did the challenges faced by Pudukkottai district in implementing the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme differ from those in Kancheepuram?

• What best practices could be identified from Kancheepuram's approach that could be replicated in other districts?

• How could the sustainability of water supply infrastructure be ensured in the context of rural water governance?

Methodology

This study employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies to provide a comprehensive analysis of the implementation of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme in Kancheepuram and Pudukkottai districts. Data were collected from official databases, field surveys, and stakeholder interviews, focusing on key aspects such as service delivery, community engagement, and institutional frameworks. The rationale for selecting Kancheepuram and Pudukkottai as study areas lay in their contrasting experiences with the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme; Kancheepuram served as a model of success with 100% FHTC coverage, while Pudukkottai, classified as a water-stressed district, had only achieved 54% coverage. This comparative analysis aimed to uncover the critical factors influencing the effectiveness of rural water supply initiatives and to identify actionable insights that could inform policy decisions and enhance the sustainability of water management practices across Tamil Nadu.

Findings

The findings of this study are summarized in several tables that provide a comparative analysis of the implementation of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme in Kancheepuram and Pudukkottai districts.

1. Coverage of Functional Household Tap Connections (FHTCs)

In Kancheepuram district, the implementation of the Har Ghar Jal Scheme has been remarkably successful, achieving 100% coverage of FHTCs. This means that every rural household in the district now has access to tap water, a significant improvement from the 58,912 households that had functional connections prior to the JJM. In contrast, Pudukkottai district has faced challenges in achieving similar success, reporting only 64% coverage of FHTCs as of February 2024. This leaves 1,70,915 households without access to tap water, highlighting a significant gap in service delivery.

Table 1: Coverage of FHTCs in Kancheepuram and Pudukkottai Districts

2. Community Engagement and Participation

Community engagement has played a crucial role in the successful implementation of the scheme in Kancheepuram. The district established 150 Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs), achieving an impressive 85% community participation rate. Additionally, 20 training programs were conducted to enhance community involvement and awareness. Conversely, Pudukkottai has only 80 VWSCs with a 40% participation rate, and it conducted just 5 training programs, indicating a need for increased community engagement.

Table 2: Community Engagement Initiatives

3. Water Quality Monitoring

Water quality monitoring is essential for ensuring the safety of drinking water. Kancheepuram district has implemented a robust monitoring system, conducting water quality tests four times a month. Only 5% of the samples showed contaminants, allowing for effective remedial measures. In contrast, Pudukkottai conducts water quality testing only once a month, with 25% of samples showing contamination, indicating a lack of proactive measures to ensure water safety.

Table 3: Water quality monitoring

4. Operational Efficiency

Operational efficiency is another critical aspect of the scheme's implementation. Kancheepuram provides a continuous 24-hour water supply with a maintenance response time of just 2 hours. The district also maintains a low non-revenue water rate of 10%. In contrast, Pudukkottai offers only 12 hours of water supply and has a maintenance response time of 24 hours, along with a high non-revenue water rate of 30%. These operational inefficiencies highlight the need for improvements in Pudukkottai.

Table 4: Operational Efficiency

5. Sustainability and Groundwater Management

Sustainability and groundwater management are vital for the long-term success of the Har Ghar Jal Scheme. Kancheepuram has implemented various water conservation measures, including the Thai Scheme and Kudimaramathu Scheme, which have enhanced groundwater recharge. As a result, the groundwater table in Kancheepuram has shown improvement due to effective water conservation efforts and favourable rainfall patterns.

In contrast, Pudukkottai faces significant challenges regarding groundwater sustainability. The district has experienced a troubling decline in groundwater levels, attributed to insufficient water conservation initiatives and the conversion of arable land to eucalyptus plantations. Reports indicate that groundwater levels in Pudukkottai are declining by up to 10 feet annually, raising concerns about the long-term viability of water resources in the region.

6. Impact on Vulnerable Communities

The implementation of the JJM has had a profound impact on vulnerable communities, particularly in Kancheepuram. The district has achieved 100% coverage of tap connections for Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) households, significantly improving their access to safe drinking water. This initiative has positively transformed the lives of 278,104 SC/ST individuals, ensuring they have reliable access to potable water.

In contrast, Pudukkottai has made progress but still faces challenges. Before the JJM, only 6.08% of SC/ST households had functional tap connections. Although coverage has improved since the implementation of the scheme, the district still struggles to achieve universal access for these vulnerable communities.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, several recommendations are proposed to enhance the effectiveness of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme and improve water supply management in Pudukkottai district:

1. Strengthening Community Engagement

• Community Participation: The number of Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs) in Pudukkottai should be increased, and active involvement in decision-making processes should be ensured. Training programmes should be organized to empower community members with the knowledge and skills necessary for effective water management.

• Awareness Campaigns: Targeted awareness campaigns should be implemented to educate residents about the importance of water conservation, hygiene, and the benefits of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme. Local leaders and influencers should be engaged to effectively disseminate information.

2. Improving Water Quality Monitoring

• Regular Water Quality Testing: A routine water quality testing schedule should be established in Pudukkottai, similar to Kancheepuram, to ensure that water supplied to households meets safety standards. Local personnel should be trained to conduct basic water quality tests to enhance community involvement and accountability.

• Public Reporting Mechanisms: Platforms should be created for community members to report water quality issues and service disruptions. This can foster transparency and prompt action from local authorities.

3. Enhancing Operational Efficiency

• Infrastructure Development: Investments should be made in upgrading and maintaining water supply infrastructure in Pudukkottai to improve operational efficiency. Existing pipelines should be repaired, storage facilities enhanced, and the availability of reliable water sources ensured.

• Efficient Resource Management: Strategies should be implemented to reduce non-revenue water by identifying and addressing leaks and inefficiencies in the water supply system. Regular audits of water usage should be conducted to identify areas for improvement.

4. Leveraging Technology

• Smart Water Management Solutions: Technology should be utilized for real-time monitoring of water supply systems, including the use of sensors and data analytics to optimize water distribution and detect leaks promptly.

• Mobile Applications for Community Engagement: Mobile applications should be developed that allow residents to report issues, access information about water quality, and receive updates on water supply schedules. This can enhance communication between communities and local authorities.

5. Policy and Funding Support

• Increased Funding for Water Projects: Advocacy for increased funding from both state and central governments should be undertaken to support water supply initiatives in Pudukkottai. This includes funding for infrastructure development, community training programmes, and awareness campaigns.

• Convergence of Government Schemes: The convergence of various government schemes related to water supply, sanitation, and rural development should be promoted to maximize resource utilization and enhance the overall impact of interventions.

Conclusion

The study on the implementation of the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme in Kancheepuram and Pudukkottai districts provides valuable insights into the complexities of rural water supply management in Tamil Nadu. Through a comparative analysis, the research highlighted the successes and challenges faced by both districts, offering a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing the effectiveness of water supply initiatives.

Kancheepuram district served as a model of success, having achieved 100% coverage of Functional Household Tap Connections (FHTCs) shortly after the scheme's launch. The district's effective planning, strong community engagement, and proactive water quality monitoring played pivotal roles in this achievement. The establishment of numerous Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs) and high levels of community participation fostered a sense of ownership among residents, ensuring the sustainability of water supply systems.

In contrast, Pudukkottai district, classified as water-stressed, faced significant challenges in implementing the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme. With only 64% FHTC coverage as of February 2024, the district grappled with issues such as inadequate community engagement, limited awareness of water management practices, and operational inefficiencies. The findings indicated a pressing need for targeted interventions to address these challenges, including enhancing community participation, improving water quality monitoring, and investing in infrastructure development.

The recommendations derived from the study emphasized the importance of community engagement, technology adoption, and policy support in achieving sustainable water management. By learning from the successful practices in Kancheepuram and addressing the gaps identified in Pudukkottai, stakeholders can work towards creating a more resilient and equitable water supply system.

In conclusion, the findings of this study underscored the critical role of effective planning, community involvement, and robust monitoring mechanisms in the successful implementation of rural water supply initiatives. As India continues to face challenges related to water scarcity and quality, the insights gained from this research can inform policy decisions and guide future efforts to enhance access to safe drinking water for all, particularly in vulnerable and water-stressed regions. The journey towards sustainable water management is ongoing, and collaborative efforts among government agencies, local communities, and civil society will be essential in achieving the goals set forth by the ‘Har Ghar Jal’ scheme and ensuring a better quality of life for rural populations across the country.

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