Intuition as the basis for World Soul- Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam

Introduction 

This paper attempts to delineate the ethical foundations of Hinduism as perceived in Dr S. Radhakrishnan’s thought, largely dominated by Veda̅nta philosophy. As a master of comparative philosophy, he constantly defends the Hindu thought from mis-perceived criticisms from the West. But in doing so he outlines his own philosophical ideas that can shape the future of a nation or nations, if delved upon. He insists on the union of jña̅na, bhakti and karma for all human activity. He ascribes centrality and genuineness only to spiritual experience vis-à-vis the intellectual experience alone. In doing so he brings about an equal and uniform approach to the act of being human for mankind across caste, creed, nationality and religion. The contention, here is, that his ethical views service the philosophy behind the dictum ‘vasudhaiva kutumbakam’ or all the world is a nest or all the world is one home, which was the motto for India’s recent presidency of the G20 nations. 

Philosophy is often judged by its capacity to improve life (Radhakrishnan, 1914, p168). Human advancement is dependent not on social, economic or political progress but on the height of moral consciousness. Even though the Vedanta does not articulate a clear theory of ethics, the philosophical foundations of this school of thought can help develop the ethics embedded well within. It is with this that we can take a spiritual view of society as an organic whole. 

In talking about the Hindu moral life, Radhakrishnan depends not only on the spiritual vision by the inward focus of the individual but also affirms that duty and virtue both emanate from the spiritual insight that one seeks. However, he points out that not all are capable of spiritual insight, as they are often clouded by ignorance or caught by desires and proclivities that are based more on the senses or intellect. Interestingly, while intellect is given supreme importance by the Western rationalists, Radhakrishnan claims that spiritual consciousness is supreme and subsumes aesthetic, ethical and cognitive values within it. 

In lay man’s language Radhakrishnan presents a view that spiritual growth and upliftment is the key to seeing the Truth in all spheres of life. It is only with this insight that national progress can be true to its nature benefitting all. The soul of man must rest on secure foundations (Radhakrishnan, p399). 

For souls to be in harmony, everything must be steady and non-contradictory so that a person can pursue higher goals. This implies that the informed statesmen must act in a manner to ensure such conditions for people that they may be able to pursue the path of spiritual growth and seek insight into Truth. 

This is much similar to the capability of approach of Amartya Sen which states that the government must provide such conditions to its people so that they are free to pursue their preferred course of action as well as higher goals. Kautilya, too, in the Arthśa̅stra asserts the importance of artha, ka̅ma and dharma as a stepping stone for mokṣa (Sinha, 2018, p73).

Radhakrishnan’s notion of spiritual insight is similar to that of Plato’s Philosopher Ruler who is able to see the sun or the ultimate Good or reality (Plato, 1987, pp245-249). Spiritual insight may even defy conventional morality but it is truth as it comes from the realisation of underlying Reality. Radhakrishnan presents to us how Hinduism and its flexibility based on universal Truth can lead the way for a more harmonious world view and a spiritually conscious nation that works towards unity and dignity of all. 

His philosophy is one of metaphysical idealism set in the strong belief that Hinduism is coeval with Advaita Veda̅nta (Hawley). He believes the real to be the Brahman which is beyond all finitude and change. Prakṛti or ma̅ya for him is subjective misperception of the Real or Absolute. Brahman is nirguṇa or without attributes, lacking diversity and distinction. Even though ma̅ya is a misunderstood modification of the Brahman, it does not affect the integrity of the Brahman. 

Intuition

Radhakrishnan claims that the knowledge of the Real is based on intuition and this leads to integral experience (Hawley). Spiritual apprehension or the kind of awareness of real values which are neither objects in space and time nor universals of thought is called intuition (Radhakrishnan, 2018, p267). The objects of intuition are recognized and not created by us. They are not produced by the act of apprehension either. 

Hindu systems of thought believe in the power of the human mind to lead us to the Truth. Ordinary mind is not the highest possible order of the mind but can rise to inconceivable levels through the eye of the mind. 

Integral experience co-ordinates and synthesises all experience and integrates them into one unified whole. It serves as the basis of all experience. In other words, all experiences of truth are intuitional. The results of this experience are integrated into the life of the individual and finds expression in the world of action or social relations and thereby ethics. 

Intuition transcends reason. Logical reflection is only a fraction of the intuitive experience (Radhakrishnan, 2018, p269). Intuition is the response of the whole man including his intellectual, ethical and aesthetic values to Reality. The different energies of the soul are not divided into silos but modify, support and control each other. Radhakrishnan uses the Sanskrit expression saṃyagdarśana or integral insight to show its wholesome nature and point out that it is far from a vision, trance or ecstasy (Radhakrishnan, 2018, p270). 

The truths of reason are presented by the work of understanding and are also translated into language through reason. However, the Truth is clearly intelligible only to the one who has the intuitive integral experience. Language can capture the Truth only to a limited extent. 

Intuition has a mystical and spiritual quality, in his view. He describes it through a menagerie of terms like religious experience, religious consciousness, mystical experience, self-existent spiritual experience. It is the real ground for man’s being as well as the creative centre of the individual. It is from the realisation of the Truth does a human shape his or her actions. 

Intuition is also self-certifying or svatasiddha. It is sufficient and complete in itself. It is ultimate in the sense that it constitutes the fullest and therefore the most authentic realisation of the Brahman. It is the ground for all other experience. It is self-revealing and immediate. It escapes the limit of language and logic and cannot be defined. It is in intuition that thought and reality coalesce and the distinction between subject and object collapses. 

Indian thought requires us to abstract from sense life and logical thinking and to surrender to the deepest self where we get the experience and realisation of the Reality or the monistic truth (Radhakrishnan, 2918, p270). Thoughts and feelings must be deeply harmonised in the light of the intuitive knowledge of the One Real entity Brahman and the given that all souls are one and equal. The spiritual growth of the self and the knowledge of reality grow in tandem. 

Ethics for Moral Life

Brahman is the one supreme Reality, while individual souls are only modifications of it (Radhakrishnan, 1914, p168). The metaphysics of the Vedanta serves as the sounding board for its ethics because it looks on all thinking beings and objects of thought as one. The spiritual insight into Reality as oneness cultivates a spirit of abheda or non-difference leading one naturally to the ethics of love and brotherhood. Thus, treating everyone as one’s coequal. 

If all souls are equal and a modification of Brahman, then harm or injury through action or speech amounts to defiling the dignity of all humans. Advaita requires man to be treated always as an end and never as a means to fulfil one’s own personal desires (Radhakrishnan, 1914, p169). 

Even though man is a part of God, he is not wholly divine. His divinity is a potentiality and it is the task of moral life to eliminate the non-divine element. It is through the exercise of reason that humans can devote themselves to the highest ideals like justice, humanity and righteousness. Violation of any one of these ideals amounts to violation of the dignity of all humankind given that all are equal and one. For the Hindu, the values of the human soul are not earth bound but belong to the eternal monism of the ultimate Truth (Radhakrishnan, 2018, p267). One can transcend the physical laws through discipline and disinterested action. 

Rationality also controls the fleeting nature of the senses that make humans prone to the diktats of desire, pleasure and instinct. It allows us to develop the capacity to distinguish the Real from the non-real, the permanent from the fleeting. In doing so, it controls inclinations and the mere push and pull of desire. Reason yields calmness for it controls the senses. The senses are not bad in themselves but unbridled by reason and under unlawful conditions they are bad. They need to be disciplined and not crushed (Radhakrishnan, 1914, p171). 

The rational life is marked by unity and consistency with the divine, the supreme Brahman. Such a life will make manifest the Supreme ideal. By relying on the command of unbridled senses, one can only lead a life of passing passions and temporary inclinations (Radhakrishnan, 1914, p172). It will be disconnected and scattered. However, a rational life tests every action against the standard of reason and helps to serve the highest end of man which is service to humanity. These goals come from the intuition of man which is even beyond reason. The spiritual intuition is a creative force that can synthesise values -ethical, cognitive and aesthetic- all of which are a part of the Real but not alone itself. 

Knowledge or jña̅na in Vedanta, is a part of the spiritual good of humanity. It does not refer to technical disciplines or schools of thought but the power that enables man to make the right decisions in life. It may not conform to convention but it relies on the spiritual insight of Truth. Highest knowledge, however, cannot be attained by turning inwards but by conducting activity in a manner that is based on the true spirit of the Real or unity of all. Such an individual/nation will aspire to make the world happier, nobler and better by shedding the cloak of egoism both personal and national. 

Central to Radhakrishnan’s ethics is intuition (Hawley). This experience resolves dilemmas and harmonizes seemingly contradictory paths of action. A new harmony is glimpsed in the moment of spiritual insight and old habits tend to go. One acts then, according to the diktats of the rational experience through intuition. Ethical experiences are profoundly transformative and are akin to religious growth. It leads to the identification of ethics with religion. 

In times of moral crisis the creative force of ethical intuition comes into force and serves as a guide for righteous action. Ethical intuition, thus, constitutes moral consciousness. This creative intuition springs from Truth and in this sense its moral precepts hold universal value. The impulse to share moral insight provides an opportunity to test the validity of intuition against reason. A moral hero is one who greatly changes through ethical experience. The moral hero is an ideal of self-sacrifice, joy, freedom and bliss. He is beyond the constraints of ego and individuality.

Mere correct or conventional behaviour clearly does not serve as morality (Radhakrishnan, 2018, p273). The moral hero is also not just content with being moral. It is through the ethical intuition that the moral hero purifies himself of worldly passions and appetites. This primarily emerges from being in communion with the universal spirit. 

Most humans are slaves of automatic thinking or habitual thought born out of impulse and emotion. This mental habit has to be broken for moral rectitude. Holding a balance between instinctive desires and cravings and social obligations is the task of moral life. The gap between morality of rules and life of spirit is humongous.  

For the Veda̅ntin, the rule relating to the highest end is the ideal of unselfish service of humanity. It serves as a maxim or absolute moral rule which ought never to be broken (Radhakrishnan, 1914, p178). The ultimate imperative is the conformity to the law of reason- ideal of service and sacrifice. With the equality and unity of all things any misdeed is indeed a misdeed to entire humanity. 

When rules conflict one must seek resolution from the supreme commandment as to which is the course most conducive to the realization of Reality. The whole moral life must be rational unity. Even though the physical and empirical world is ma̅ya, morality is real to the extent that it is a part of the Real. The world of knowledge and life is not an appearance but it is reality partially understood. 

Veda̅nta considers three levels of reality- parama̅rthika, vyavaha̅rika and pratibha̅śika. The parama̅rthika level is the Absolute Truth or the realization that we are all one with the Brahman. The vyavaha̅rika level consists of the worldly life where in aesthetic, moral and cognitive values operate and the pratibha̅śika level refers to dream state, illusion and error. These also correspond to the three aspects of the mind- superconscious, conscious and sub conscious (Hawley).

Avidya̅ is the cause of the empirical world. It is the principle of finiteness (Radhakrishnan, 1949, p65-68). It produces the dualism of subject and object when in reality all is one. Ma̅ya is only an aspect of Brahman from the vyavaha̅rika level of consciousness. 

As long as man exercises his cognitive faculties and understands the world as a modification of the Brahman, he is in a position to exercise moral activity. As the spiritual insight advances, man is able to distance himself and act like a Boddhisattva to remove suffering and ignorance of others who understand the empirical world to be the only reality. In this, man is not guided by external or conventional moral codes but relies on the inner rhythm and harmony between the self and Brahman revealed in intuitive experience. 

Ethical principles are not determined by moral convention but by the direct insight of the soul into the Real, the unity or metaphysical monism. People who have this insight have the task of rousing divine possibilities in sinners as every soul has the potential to realize higher levels of reality to achieve moral progress. It is in this context that Radhakrishnan insists on the moral awakening of not just individuals but a nation as a whole. Man must enter into the strife of world to do his duty based on the call of reason derived from spiritual insight (Radhakrishnan, 1914, p183). Every man is required to contribute to the national cause through earnest work. “It is by the adoption of this gospel of work that a nation can grow,” says Radhakrishnan. 

The philosophy that moral action emanates from values based on spiritual insight and administered by reason can be an antidote to political apathy, lack of organisation, absence of civic virtues, egotism and the attitude of being laid back. There is no fatalism or asceticism that is recommended in the Veda̅nta but a life of action based on duty, just like Arjuna was asked by Krishna to do in the Bhagvadgita̅. It is not renunciation of action but renunciation in action that man must work without desires and instincts guided be reason. It is this that Hinduism brings home to the world.

Doctrine of Karma

The theory of Karma, says that karma is a universal cosmic law and does not conflict with the reality of freedom of the will (Radhakrishnan, HVL p71-73). One cannot manipulate the laws of the cosmos. Theory of karma recognizes the rule of law or ṛta not just in nature but also in the case of mind and morals.

Man has the moral freedom to act in accordance with rationality or not. Even though the theory of karma says, that predispositions are predetermined by our past acts, human character is self-created (Radhakrishnan, 1914, p181). The rational self must give consent to these desires in order that they may be motives or self-conscious desires. The will is free but only limited to some extent by certain natural and social conditions that are predetermined on account of previous karma. Reason enables man to transcend these dispositions. Our duty is to stand for what is right irrespective of the fact that we succeed or not. 

Karma is not a mechanical principle but a spiritual necessity which is wrought within our natures (Radhakrishnan, 1949, p73). It is a divine law that cannot be evaded. Sin is not a denial of God but a denial of the soul and betrayal of self. Spiritual growth is linked to the recognition of this rule of law. While consequences of past actions are to be borne, the law tells us to act ethically. There is room for repentance and forgiveness by through karma. 

The cards are already dealt out due to the law of karma but how we play them depends upon us and in this way the will is free (Radhakrishnan, 1949, pp74-76). Human actions are determined by the decisions the will takes given its conditions and circumstances. Thus, there is a genuine scope for rational freedom and consequently repentance and penance. The law encourages the sinner mend his actions and does not shut the gates of hope.

Many argue that since everything is a consequence of past actions, the theory of karma entails fatalism. On the contrary, the theory allows man the freedom to use the material at hand in the light of jña̅na or knowledge (with the latter not just referring to cognitive knowledge). Man controls the uniformities of nature, his mind and the society and consequently there is scope for genuine freedom of the will. There is no fatalism in the theory of karma and the responsibility of man’s actions rests squarely on his shoulders.

It is this moral and spiritual growth and consciousness that Radhakrishnan evokes for the true progress of a nation and not just economic, social or political. It is the duty of the wise to rouse the unmindful to spiritual insight and awakening to what is within. 

Dharma

Hinduism is a way of life which allows humans the liberty to think and reflect but imposes a strict code of practice (Radhakrishnan, 1949, p77). It insists not only on religious conformity but also on a spiritual and ethical outlook to life. In other words, practice precedes theory. 

Dharma is right action. It comes from the root word dhṛ which means to uphold a thing and also maintain its being. Ṛta is universal order. The latter stands for both satya or Truth and also dharma. Dharma is conformity to the Truth of things. It means action that is born out of realization of the unity with the Supreme. Adharma, is opposition to dharma because moral evil is disharmony with the truth which encompasses and controls the world. 

Ethical actions have an overarching unity because man is a part of the one Supreme soul (Radhakrishnan, 1949, p78). It is through contemplation and insight that he recognizes four supreme ends- artha, ka̅ma, dharma and mokṣa. Radhakrishnan treats these four puruśa̅rthas or goals of human life as a part of the fundamental human nature. Unless the constitution of the human mind is changed, we cannot eradicate these four goals. This is similar to the notion of the categories of understanding as espoused by German philosopher Immanuel Kant. 

Artha refers to the pursuit of wealth and happiness which must be gained through desire or ka̅ma in a righteous manner or through the principles of dharma, if it is to lead to mokṣa (Radhakrishnan,1949, pp80-82). Each one of these requires a code of discipline because to secure our spiritual freedom we have to bind ourselves in certain ways. It is on account of this that even the minutest aspect of life was examined and rules formulated for them in the Dharmaśa̅stras. 

Though various customs and conventions are set, they are renounced when they conflict with reason (Radhakrishnan, 1949, pp 81-82). These codes are not cast in in iron but change with time and culture. However, the conduct of good people or righteous souls is universal and common to all countries, families and societies. 

The śa̅stras are scriptures or records of experience of seers who grappled with the problem of reality (Radhakrishnan, 2008, p179). Their claims are not based on the logical validity of statements about God or historical validity of reports of the activity of God. These are based on the true intuitive experience of seers and what they can convey through language. For, the true experience of unity is so profound that it even transcends language. 

According to Hindu dharma, man must live by the spirit and not by materialistic aspirations and desires. All activities must be ordained towards mokṣa or complete emancipation of the soul with the realisation of Brahman. The path to this end is the simultaneous employment of jña̅na, bhakti and karma. Jña̅na is not intellectual acumen or dialectical power, as mentioned afore, but realised experience. It is the union with God (at the vyavaha̅rika level) and Brahman (at the parma̅rthika level). It is in the light of Truth whatever action that we commit is right action. Truth is synonymous with right action. 

Radhakrishnan argues that the essence of all religions is one integral experience based on intuition (Hawley). The various religions derive out of multiple interpretations of this integral experience. The difference is that intuitions abide while interpretations change. Religious intuition is a confluence of cognitive, aesthetic and ethical facets of life. These are parts of it but the experience is full and immediate. 

This intuition validates all other spheres of life as it is the realisation of the Truth or Brahman or one universal soul. Ethics, values, beauty and goodness are not known to senses or reason but are immediate in intuition. Religious intuition is identity of the self with ultimate reality expressed in the declaration of absolute monism -‘tat tvam asi’. It is the realisation of the unity of a̅tman and Brahman. Such a person has the knowledge that there is harmony or oneness underlying all conflict. 

Intuition or integral experience co-ordinates and synthesizes life’s experiences. It gives the individual awareness and appreciation of unity. It is serves as the basis of all experience and creative ingenuity whether it may be philosophical, scientific, moral, artistic or religious. 

The words of the śruti and smṛti are considered as valid for they are the records of personal intuitions that have autonomous or universal character. Truths of the ṛṣis are not products of logical reasoning or systematic philosophy but are the result of spiritual intuition, dṛṣti or vision. Ṛṣis are not authors but seers who were able to discern the eternal truths by raising their life-spirit to the plane of universal spirit. 

The Intuition Behind Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam

The world demands an intuitive approach to international cooperation and understanding (Radhakrishnan, 2008, p173). No political understanding can be met without understanding at the cultural level. The idea is to overcome facile generalisations, which are misleading and it is only through true human experience that peace can become a permanent affair. 

Radhakrishnan points out that India may have gone through various phases through the course of its long history- detachment, anger, shame, excitement, adventure etc. and yet all through this runs an idea which attempts at realizing an equilibrium- a wholeness of human nature. The country may be mobile in events and vicissitudes but constant in depth. 

The Indian understanding of reality and religion has withstood the tests of time. The deep underlying thread that has bound it through centuries comes from the approach to realisation of reality. Radhakrishnan says that four su̅tras or aphorisms from Brahma-su̅tra explain the Indian approach to religion and ethics. According to them, firstly there is a need for knowledge of the ultimate reality along with a rational approach to it. Thirdly, we must experience reality and lastly reconcile seemingly conflicting aspects of the nature of ultimate reality. This is because even though intuitive experience may be same, the interpretations vary. 

Indian philosophy is essentially an enquiry into the nature of man (Radhakrishnan, 2018, p257). To the Indian mind, philosophy hold importance in practically dealing with the problems of suffering and anxiety of the human race. The attempt is to consider and find a solution by not contemplating the world externally but from within. The interpenetration of God and the world, ideas and facts, is the central tenet of Hinduism. The religious soul after contemplation of the ultimate reality turns to the world of practical life. 

It is essential to liberate not only bodies from starvation but also minds from slavery (Radhakrishnan, 2018, p259). The moral hero is one who works for peace with humility and love towards entire mankind. The fact that he has the true knowledge based on intuition or integral experience allows him to defy social norms and customs that go against rationality. Religion, which for Radhakrishnan, is akin to intuitive insight brings courage and adventure. In other words it impels one to act ethically for the future of all out of fortitude and there is no room for asceticism or fatalism of any kind. 

Such humans look at tradition as something fluid and mobile while having a clear vision of the transforming age. Political crises emerge when there is loss of faith and weakening of the moral fibre. It is essential to reign in the senses and overcome passions of greed and avarice. 

Chaos in the world is rooted in the chaos of our mind. It is only the path of spiritual renewal that can bring unity in spirit, thought and action. The problem with the current public policy is that it is based solely on scientific or rational models on the assumption that man’s soul is divided into two - moral and intellectual. 

The modern intellectual is moulded by methods and concepts of modern science and is highly dependent for his decisions on verifiable facts and tangible results. In such a framework whatever cannot be measured or calculated is unreal. Social groups comprising of such minds have no other purpose except forwarding material wealth. Economic welfare is the end of all existence. 

The denial of the divine by the preachers of secular humanism has resulted in a complete lack of spiritual growth of the soul and suspended the freedom of the rational will. Man can never be at rest, even if his physical needs are amply met. Peace of mind is remote and the conditions that need to be created for human excellence are impossible under such a framework. 

The chaos in the world can be countered by developing a sense of belonging to one whole, like the Veda̅ntin does (Radhakrishnan, 1983, pp10-11). Community ideals must be the backbone of citizen actions. Moreover, every kind of injustice must be removed and people must have a sense of contentment. The people should be so well endowed with the basic conditions of life that they can work towards consecration by embarking on a path towards the realisation of reality. Thirdly, people must feel that they have common purposes whatever, their caste, creed or community. 

Mass psychology and mass hysteria are a perfect recipe for rebellion (Radhakrishnan, 1983 p12). As nations grow closer together they must understand the need for a unifying spiritual authority or ideology. This ideology must assert a sense of belonging to the whole. Different cultures must try and understand this unifying philosophy for world peace and progress. 

Applying his ethical and spiritual ideals to the world, Radhakrishnan attempts to create a framework on the basis of which we bring a human community together as a world community by removing injustice and surrendering a part of our sovereignty for greater world peace. 

With India having held the G20 presidency for 2022-23, Radhakrishnan’s thought holds contemporary relevance and offers a modern view of the dictum ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’, which was the motto for the year. These two words mean that ‘the world is one family’. This is serves as an all-embracing outlook that encourages us to progress as one universal family transcending borders, languages, and ideologies (Modi, 2023). 

As Radhakrishnan points out that there should be no justice and frustration among people in their attempt to pursue their higher goals, similarly the G20 through this ancient Indian dictum similarly proposes a human centric approach for progress. 

“As one Earth, we are coming together to nurture our planet. As one Family, we support each other in the pursuit of growth. And we move together towards a shared future - one Future - which is an undeniable truth in these interconnected times,” -Narendra Modi. The very notion of a shared future entails that we must all consider ourselves as parts of one whole as envisaged by Radhakrishnan who insists on a human community with the strong belief in oneness of all reality. 

The pandemic has created a new world outlook. At the time when Radhakrishnan espoused his philosophical sea changes were also rocking the world, with imperialism being brought down to its knees by the force of a simple philosophical outlook of millions of Indians. 

With the new post-pandemic world order there are three important changes, among others (Modi, 2023). The first is a realisation to make a paradigm shift from a GDP-centric view of the world to a human-centric one. The second is to focus on resilience and reliability in global supply chains to prevent any kind of inequities and injustices. Thirdly, there is a collective call for boosting multilateralism through the reform of global institutions. 

The first and third as needs of a growing global community have been suggested by Radhakrishnan as well derived out of Veda̅ntin ideals. As far as the second is concerned, while there is no direct reference, Radhakrishnan points out that basic needs should be met to the extent that suffering is not perpetrated on any section of the human community. 

In India, living in harmony with nature has been a norm since ancient times and the country has been contributing towards climate action even in modern times (Modi, 2023). When we consider ourselves as part of the one spiritual universal soul all material and non-material beings become one. Radhakrishnan’s thought, thus, extends to the pressing needs of environment and climate change as subsumed in under the concept of vasudhaiva kutumbakam. It is only when we realize through intuitive experience the oneness of all, that policies for climate action matched with actions on climate finance and transfer of technology gain momentum.

G20 has become a people-driven movement in modern times much as Radhakrishnan focused on human capacities to bring a change in humanity as a whole. With over 200 meetings organised in 60 Indian cities across the length and breadth of our nation, hosting nearly 100,000 delegates from 125 countries by the end of our term, India has made real effort towards bringing a change through the realisation of the philosophy of vasudhaiva kutumbakam. The clear attempt is to lend an ear to every local voice for a human community that surpasses geographical boundaries. 

Conclusion

There is no difference between the East and West for religion and science are only two aspects of the same reality (Radhakrishnan, 1983, pp38-39). The rational and spiritual are inextricably bound together. One of these aspects may be more prominent in different periods but that does not imply that one half of mankind is more scientific or progressive than the other. Human beings are fundamentally the same and hold the same deep values. 

Isolated existence of human groups has become outdated. The world economy is drawn together by technology. However, modernisation is not just akin to industrialisation. As communication techniques change by the second, new values emerge every now and then. Humans have become bound to each other through a relationship of interdependence which is essential for their very existence. The world has become a unit and it is time that we see the Unity or Reality that is proposed by the very structure of Indian philosophical thought. It is such dictums as vasudhaiva kutumbakam that bear within the reality seeking the world to be treated as one unit. 

Nations can last long, only if they adhere to the moral law (Radhakrishnan, 1983, p42). The moral law emanates for all mankind from the inner voice, conscience, the divine law which is not written by hand but is available to our intuition. It binds the members of the human family together and entails a sense of duty for the safety and happiness of the whole human family. The interdependence of nations is so close that no one nation can be hurt without injury to the rest. 

The new order that we seek through vasudhaiva kutumbakam requires a strong belief in co-existence, which is one way of ridding the world of intolerance and misunderstanding. The new order is neither national or continental, eastern or western but universal. India with its huge spiritual heritage can contribute truly to the richness and variety of the world. 

It is through the intuition of a metaphysical unity that most confrontational issues between humans and nations can be resolved. Radhakrishnan’s vision of the application of his philosophy to create a unified world has special relevance today. Hunger and despair are not nationality specific and the spiritual force of human kind is essential to overcome these hurdles across nations. Today, countries have joined hands to address and solve socio-economic problems transcending borders, races, groups and ethnicity and the moral-spiritual approach can only be the course to the success of this endeavour. 

References

1. Secular humanism is a philosophy that embraces human reason, logic, secular ethics, and philosophical naturalism, while specifically rejecting religious dogma, supernaturalism, and superstition as the basis of morality and decision making.

2. Plato (1987). The Philosopher Ruler. The Republic. Penguin. London. 

3. Radhakrishnan, S. (1949). The Hindu View of Life. Upton Lectures. George Allen and Unwin. London. 

4. Radhakrishnan, S. (2008). The Indian Approach to the Religious Problem. The Indian Mind. Ed Moore, Charles, A. Motilal Benrasidas. Delhi. 

5. Radhakrishnan, S. (1969) The World’s Unborn Soul. Radhakrishnan Reader- An Anthology. Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan. Mumbai. Ed K.M. Munshi & R.R. Diwakar. 

6. Radhakrishnan, S. (2018). The Spirit in Man. Contemporary Indian Philosophy- Essentials of Indian Philosophy and Culture. Routledge Revivals. Routledge. New York. Ed Radhakrishnan, S. & Muirhead, J.H. 

7. Sinha, Pradhan Gunjan (2018). Ethical Perspectives on Kautilya’s Arthaśa̅stra. Dharma in Governance- Towards a Welfare State. Aditya Prakashan. Delhi. 

8. Hawley, Michael. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/radhakri/

9. Modi, Narendra. (2023). Human-Centric Globalisation: Taking G20 to the Last Mile, Leaving None Behind. Press Information Bureau. Government of India. 

10. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1955326#:~:text='Vasudhaiva%20Kutumbakam'%20%E2%80%93%20these%20two,borders%2C%20languages%2C%20and%20ideologies.

11. Radhakrishnan, S. (1914). Ethics of the Vedanta. International Journal of Ethics. https://ia803207.us.archive.org/35/items/jstor-2376505/2376505.pdf.