Reform Phase: An Attempt for a New Nation

India undertook substantial reforms in a number of areas of its economy, society, and government after achieving independence from British domination in 1947. These reforms, which attempted to create a new nation and overcome the difficulties encountered by an independent nation with a diverse people, were crucial in determining India's course as a young country and in setting the groundwork for future growth and development. Under Jawaharlal Nehru's direction and that of succeeding leaders, the Indian government set out on a mission to address these issues and alter the social and economic climate of the country. To improve the standard of living of all its residents, the Nation continues to address a variety of socio-economic problems and strive for inclusive growth.  

Following independence, India's growth in society and the economy can be summarized as follows:

Reform Phase: After Independence

Constitutional Reforms: The Indian Constitution, which came into force on January 26, 1950, was the most important reform. The Constitution established a legislative democratic process, fundamental rights, and a guiding principle of state policy to direct the government's efforts in achieving social and economic justice. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar served as chair of the writing committee. In order to define and advance its governance structure, India has undergone a number of key constitutional modifications. These changes attempted to deal with numerous problems, uphold democratic values, and meet the many requirements of the country. Following India's independence, the following major constitutional modifications were made: 

The Constitution of India (1950):  Adoption of the Indian Constitution on January 26, 1950, was the most important constitutional change to occur following independence. It took the place of the Government of India Act 1935, which established the Government of India during the colonial era. India was declared a socialist, secular, and democratic nation under its constitution. In order to protect individual liberties and advance social and economic justice, it established Fundamental Rights and guiding principles of governmental policy. 

Abolition of Privy Purses (1971): Privy purses were monetary allowances granted to the erstwhile rulers of princely states after they acceded to India following independence. The government decided to abolish privy purses through the 26th Amendment Act of 1971, thereby putting an end to the special privileges of the former rulers. 

Panchayati Raj System (1992): Part IX, which served as the framework for the Panchayati Raj System, was added to the Constitution by the 73rd Amendment Act of 1992, bringing about considerable changes. By introducing elected rural local councils and giving them control over administration and finances, this amendment transferred authority to the local levels. 

Municipalities Reforms (1993): Part IXA of the Constitution, which dealt with urban local bodies (municipalities), was added by the 74th Amendment Act of 1993. Decentralized urban government and the development of accountable municipal bodies were both included. 

Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order (1950) and (Scheduled Tribes) Order (1950): For various states and territories, the President of India issued orders naming the Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST), giving them particular safeguards and equal opportunities in the form of reservations in employment and education. Following India's independence in 1947, there were some significant attempts in support of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs and STs), the Other Backward Castes (OBCs) after the 1980s, and the impoverished in the general category in 2019. 

(ii) Land and Agriculture Reforms: To solve concerns with land allocation and tenancy, the government launched land reforms. The intention was to get rid of middlemen and landlords and give vacant property to farmers in order to spread out land ownership. To safeguard the liberties of farmers and agricultural workers, several land reform laws were put into place by various governments. The following are a few of the significant agrarian reforms carried out in India after independence:

Zamindari Abolition: The Zamindari system was eliminated, which was one of the initial and most important agrarian reforms. In the zamindari system, a feudal form of land tenure, middlemen called zamindars would collect money from farmers and give an amount of it to the British colonial rulers.

Tenancy Reforms: Several states adopted tenancy legislation to safeguard the rights of tenants in agriculture. These changes aimed to secure renters' tenancies and govern their interactions with landlords. Setting a cap on rentals, giving long-term tenants ownership rights, and offering legal protection from arbitrary removal were a few of the frequent clauses.

Land Ceiling Laws: Several states passed land ceiling legislation to address the problem of property accumulation and disproportionate land distribution. The most land that a person or family might own was constrained by these rules. The government purchased the extra land that was above the set ceiling limit and gave it to marginal or landless farmers. 

Green Revolution: India saw the Green Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s, which had a considerable impact on agricultural productivity without directly enacting an agrarian reform. It required the employment of high-yielding crop types, more fertilizer, and better irrigation systems. India went from having a food shortage to having a surplus of food as a result of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution's main characteristics in India are:

Introduction of High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of seeds: High-yielding wheat and rice cultivars created via scientific study were introduced during the Green Revolution. These HYVs responded well to contemporary interventions like fertilizers and irrigation, had shorter crop cycles, and was immune to pests and diseases. 

Expansion of irrigation: The Indian government made significant investments in expanding irrigation infrastructure to facilitate the growing of HYVs. To supply water to farmlands, dams, canals, and tube wells were constructed, thereby reducing reliance on monsoon rains and expanding the area under cultivation. Services for agricultural research and extension: Agricultural research organizations and extension agencies helped the Green Revolution by educating farmers all around the nation about contemporary farming methods. 

Impact of the Green Revolution

Enhanced farming effectiveness: The use of HYVs and contemporary farming techniques has resulted in a notable improvement in crop yields, especially in the case of wheat and rice, the two main dietary staples of India.

Food Self-Sufficiency: India went from being a food-insufficient country that was heavily dependent on food imports to a nation that was able to meet its own food demands. Reduced poverty and better quality of life: The Green Revolution had a favorable effect on the rural economy, raised farm earnings, and helped to reduce poverty in many areas. 

(iii) Economic Planning: After the Planning Commission was established in India in 1950, the country transitioned to a planned economy. Five-Year Plans were developed to direct economic growth and distribute funds to important industries, infrastructure, and education. India started a series of economic reforms after attaining independence in 1947 to address the difficulties of being a young sovereign state and to promote economic growth and development. These changes can be generally divided into the following phases: 

Planning and Development (1951-1991): A managed economic benefits, with the government playing an essential part in economic development and planning, defined the years from 1951 and 1991. The governmental and private sectors are both present in India's mixed economy model. The most important economic reforms and programs during this period were:

Five-Year Plans: The Five-Year Plans were first developed in India to set particular economic goals and distribute resources to various sectors. These initiatives attempted to industrialize, expand the infrastructure, and combat poverty by implementing various social schemes. 

Public Sector Undertaking (PSUs)

India had a little industrial base and was essentially an agrarian nation when it attained independence in 1947. There were only 18 government-owned Indian Ordnance Factories, which had been built in the past to lessen the British Indian Army's reliance on imported weapons. Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister proposed an industrialization-based economic strategy based on import substitution, as well as a mixed economy. He thought that the development and modernization of the Indian economy depended on the formation of heavy and basic industry. 

(iv) Industrial Policy: India implemented an industrial policy to encourage industrialization and financial independence. The government concentrated on growing important industries, especially those deemed crucial for the expansion and prosperity of the nation. The main industrial policies that India pursued following independence were:

• 1948 Industrial Policy Resolution Only a few years after independence, in 1948, the nation's initial industrial strategy was created. In order to promote quick industrialization and self-reliance, this resolution placed a strong emphasis on state involvement in industrial growth. The program was centred on designating specific industries as belonging only to the public sector and encouraging private businesses to join in non-reserved industries.

• 1956 Industrial Policy Resolution This initiative, also known as the "Socialistic Structure of Civilization" strategy, was a turning point in India's efforts to industrialize. It stressed the state's function as the main force behind industrial development. With the private sector being urged to engage in other areas, the policy aspired to create a mixed economy where the public sector played an integral part in essential and critical sectors.

• 1977 Industrial Policy Resolution: The government implemented this program in response to economic difficulties and the requirement to revive industries. It aimed to increase the competitiveness of small-scale industries, support their role, and lessen regional inequities. The policy also aimed to promote modernization and technical developments while bolstering the public sector.

• Industrial strategy of 1991 (Revised in 1998 and 2003): To stimulate foreign direct investment (FDI) in a variety of sectors, the government updated the industrial strategy as economic reforms progressed. Particular attention was provided to industries including services, telecommunications, and information technology. 

(v) Education and Literacy: There have been initiatives to advance education and raise literacy rates all around the nation. The government set up schools, colleges, and universities and took steps to increase everyone's access to education. The country's socioeconomic progress and citizen empowerment depended on education and literacy, the administration acknowledged. India has come a long way in these areas over the years, but there are still obstacles to overcome. Following is a summary of changes in literacy and education since independence:

• Educational Reforms: Various educational reforms were implemented by the Indian government to increase access to education and improve learning outcomes. Several important initiatives were: 

• The Kothari Commission (1966–1966): This commission offered suggestions for the improvement of education in India under the direction of educationist Dr. D.S. Kothari. Its report placed a strong emphasis on the necessity of providing children up to the age of 14 with free and required education as well as the growth of higher education and the promotion of vocational training.

National Policy on Education (1968)

With the help of this policy, the nation's educational system was intended to become more uniform and egalitarian. It placed a priority on providing all children with free and required education, putting a strong emphasis on science and technology education, and encouraging the study of regional languages. In 1968, the government led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi unveiled the first National Policy on Education, which was based on the conclusions and suggestions of the Kothari Commission (1964–1966). This policy called for a “restructuring of Radicalism" and suggested equitable access to education with the goal to accomplish national integration and higher cultural and economic development. 

The "three language formula" to be used in secondary education—the teaching of Hindi, the official language of the state wherever the school was located, and English—was outlined in the policy, which called for a concentration on the acquisition of regional languages. In order to bridge the gap between the elite and the common people, language instruction was considered to be crucial. The National Policy on Education of 1968 included the following main goals and highlights:

• Universalization of Education: According to the policy, all children up to the age of 14 (later raised to 18 by the Right to Education Act, 2009) will get free and required education.

• Emphasis on Vocational Education: The policy aimed to create programs that would assist students in acquiring knowledge and skills relevant to the workplace and acknowledged the value of vocational education.

• Promotion of Indian Languages: The policy recommended that schools implement a three-language curriculum and underlined the value of maintaining and promoting Indian languages.

• Reorganization of the Higher Education System: With a focus on raising the standard of higher education institutions, the program called for the creation of a three-tiered educational system made up of universities, colleges, and schools. 

National Education Policy (1986)

Under the assistance of this policy, the nation's educational system was intended to become more uniform and egalitarian. It placed a priority on providing all children with free and required education, putting a strong emphasis on technological and scientific education, and encouraging the study of indigenous languages. A new National Policy on Education was announced in 1986 by the Rajiv Gandhi-led administration. According to the new policy, there should be "exceptional attention to the elimination of imbalances and to democratize academic opportunities," particularly for Indian women, Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Scheduled Caste (SC) populations. In order to strengthen primary schools across the country, the NPE called for a "child-centred approach" in primary education and launched "Operation of Blackboard." The policy added the 1985-founded Indira Gandhi National Open University to the system of open universities. In order to foster economic and social development at the local level in rural India, the strategy also called for the establishment of the "rural university" model, which was inspired by the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi. 

(vi) Women's Rights: India achieved achievements toward strengthening women and establishing gender equality. Equal rights for men and women have been established by the Constitution, and a number of laws were enacted to uphold the rights and interests of women. A number of initiatives were started by the Indian government, social reformers, and women's rights advocates to advance women's status and rights in the nation. After India gained independence, the following significant changes in women's rights occurred: A number of measures were included in the Indian Constitution, which became operative on January 26, 1950, to protect women's rights and advance gender equality. Articles 14 (Right to Equality) and 15 (Prohibition of Discrimination on the Basis of Religion, Race, or National Origin) are a few of the pertinent ones. Article 16 (Equality of opportunity in public work) and Article 14 (Respect for caste, sex, or place of birth). 

• Women's Suffrage: Following India's independence, women were granted the right to vote. Women participated in the 1951–1952 general elections as voters and candidates, which was a crucial turning point for women's political emancipation.

• The Hindu Succession Act of 1956: This law changed the way inheritance rules were applied and gave females the same right to inherit ancestors' property as sons. Daughters had limited rights to inherited property before this.

• The Maternity Benefits Act of 1961: The Act stipulates maternity leave and financial support for expectant mothers and new mothers for women working in India.

• The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961: This law was designed to tackle the societal ill of dowry, which has been a major issue in India.

• The Equal Remuneration Act of 1976: This law guarantees that men and women in the same workplace receive equal pay for equivalent labor. NCW, the National Commission for Women in order to protect the rights and interests of women in India, to examine laws and policies that impact women, and to recommend necessary reforms, the NCW was founded in 1992.

• Women in Politics: Over time, there have been progressively more women in politics. The President, Prime Minister, and numerous ministerial portfolios are just a few of the significant roles in the government that women have held. The 73rd and 74th governments established policies for women's equality.

• Educational Empowerment: To encourage females' education and raise female literacy rates, the government has taken action. Access has been made better by programs like the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All).  

(vii) Reservation Policy: The quota system, which offers employment opportunities for Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC) in higher education and government positions, was established to redress past social disparities and caste-based discrimination. To remedy past and contemporary injustices and to advance social equality, the government established a number of initiatives. 

(viii) Foreign Policy: After the independence of India, Pt. Nehru observed - quote "The preservation of world peace and the expansion of human freedom are the objectives of our foreign policy." He added that the idealism of today would give way to realism in the future. India adopted a non-alignment strategy, claiming its independence from the Cold War blocs and fostering cordial relations with all countries. India was a key player in the Non-Aligned Movement, which promoted harmony and collaboration among developing nations. Following are some of the main tenets of India's foreign policy following independence:

Non-Alignment: One of the cornerstones of India's foreign policy was the principle of non-alignment. India chose not to align itself with any major power bloc during the Cold War era and aimed to maintain strategic autonomy and independence in its international relations. This policy was articulated by India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who emphasized the need to remain neutral in global power struggles. 

Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence): India, along with China, played a significant role in formulating the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, also known as Panchsheel, in 1954. These principles emphasized mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, equality, and peaceful co-existence. 

Concentration on Multilateralism: India has been a major proponent of multilateralism and has taken an active role in a number of international fora, including the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and several regional alliances. India has made an effort to interact with the world community on global concerns including climate change, sustainable development, and disarmament.

Priorities in the Territory: India places a high value on its connections with its neighbours and the larger South Asian region. For the sake of regional stability and prosperity, programs like the "Neighbourhood First" strategy seek to strengthen economic and political relations with neighbouring nations. 

(ix) Healthcare and Public Services: To meet the requirements of the expanding population, the government extended public services and healthcare facilities. The public health and sanitation were improved. India faced enormous difficulties in 1947 when it became independent; making sure its people had access to quality healthcare. The Indian government has put a lot of effort towards enhancing healthcare delivery, expanding access to medical services, and improving healthcare infrastructure. A summary of the changes to India's healthcare system following independence:  

National Health Programs: In order to address the country's serious health problems, the Indian government launched a number of national health programs. The National Malaria Eradication Program, which began in 1958, the Family Planning Program, which began in the late 1950s, the National Tuberculosis Control Program, which began in 1962, and the Universal Immunization Program, which began in 1985, are a few of the important programs.

National Health Policy (1983): The Government of India published the National Health Policy in 1983 as a key document outlining the nation's approach to health and healthcare delivery. This strategy sought to offer an all-inclusive framework for healthcare growth and planning in India. Here are some of the National Health Policy of 1983's major highlights:

Primary Health Care: As the cornerstone of the healthcare system, primary health care (PHC) was emphasized as being crucial in the strategy. It acknowledged the value of fundamental curative, preventive and promotional health services at the community level to raise the general public's level of health.

National Malaria Eradication Program: Originally known as the National Malaria Control Program (NMCP), the National Eradication Program (NMEP) was established in 1958. The NMEP was incredibly successful between 1958 and 1965, reducing the frequency of malaria to only 1 lakh cases and preventing any deaths in 1965.

National Tuberculosis Control Programme: The National Tuberculosis Control Programme was established in 1962 with the objective of reducing the disability and death from TB by effective treatment. The Govt. of India, WHO and World Bank together reviewed the NTP in 1992. Based on the findings a revised strategy for NTP was evolved. In order to attain a DOTS (Direct Observation Treatment Short course) cure rate of at least 85%, short-term chemotherapy has been established in 5 districts. Volunteers like as teachers, anganwadi workers, dais, former patients, and social workers carry out this activity. NGOs work in the fields of communication, education, and information. 

Declaration of Alma Ata: The Alma Ata Declaration, which stressed the value of primary healthcare as the key to achieving "Health for All" by the year 2000, was signed in 1978 by India and other World Health Organization (WHO) members. This statement reaffirmed India's commitment to enhancing healthcare for all of its residents. 

(x) Banking and Financial Reforms: India's banking industry experienced changes to improve the stability of the financial system. Major Banks were nationalized by the government in order to promote financial inclusion and assure credit flow to various economic sectors. The goal of nationalizing banks was to promote financial inclusion, implement economic reforms, and dedicate banking resources toward social development. 

Nationalization's Initial Phase (1969): The announcement of the nationalization of 14 significant commercial banks in India was made by the Indian government on July 19, 1969, under the direction of then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. At the time, these banks accounted for almost 85% of all deposits in the banking industry. Punjab National Bank, Bank of India, Bank of Baroda, Canara Bank, Central Bank of India, United Bank of India, Dena Bank, Syndicate Bank, Union Bank of India, Allahabad Bank, Indian Bank, Indian Overseas Bank, Bank of Maharashtra, and UCO Bank were among the banks nationalized during this time.The main goals of this nationalization were to: Promote financial inclusion by expanding banking services to rural and semi-urban areas; Ensure that banks meet the needs of priority industries, such as agriculture, small-scale manufacturing, and other sectors essential to economic development; prevent the concentration of economic power in the hands of a small number of private players.

Second stage of Nationalization (1980): On April 15, 1980, the government undertook a second stage of nationalization, taking control of six more private banks. Andhra Bank, Corporation Bank, New Bank of India (which merged with Punjab National Bank in 1993), Oriental Bank of Commerce, Punjab and Sind Bank, and Vijaya Bank were among the banks nationalized during this time. 

Reform Phase: Early 1990s

Reform Phase initiated in 1991 as LPG Theory

In India, the process of liberalization, globalization, and privatization reform phases started in the early 1990s and lasted into the early 2000s. The economic reforms associated with privatization, globalization, and liberalization have significantly impacted India. They aided in boosting economic growth rates, boosting foreign investment, growing the services industry, and joining the worldwide supply chain. These reforms were not without difficulty, though, since worries concerning inequality and regional inequalities persisted as issues of policy focus for succeeding governments. These are the primary elements of this reform phase:

Liberalization: Government controls and regulations on many economic sectors were loosened as a result of liberalization. This included removing trade restrictions, liberalizing private enterprise freedom, and simplifying industrial licensing. India's economic reform was aided by its 1985 balance of payments crisis. Due to the crisis, the nation was unable to cover both its debt obligations and necessary imports. Therein, India was driven to the verge of bankruptcy. Dr. Manmohan Singh, India's then Finance Minister, responded by introducing economic liberalization in the country.

Globalization: The goal of globalization was to incorporate the Indian economy into the international market. It involves fostering technology transfer and partnerships with foreign businesses, as well as supporting foreign direct investment (FDI) and global trade and investment. The goal of globalization is to eliminate borders so that one country's needs can be met by the rest of the world, creating a single, massive economy.

As a result of globalization, outsourcing: Contracting is the key result of the globalization process. In the outsourcing model, a corporation from one nation engages an expert from another nation to complete work that was previously completed by an internal resource from that nation. The benefit of outsourced is that work may be performed more cheaply and competently from any location in the world. In India, a number of contact centers or BPO firms have emerged with their own models of voice-based business processes. Services like banking, accounting, and bookkeeping are all being outsourced from industrialized nations to India, as well as medical advice.

Privatization: The goal of privatization was to lessen the role of the government in economic activity and to increase private sector involvement across a range of industries. To increase productivity and competitiveness, state-owned businesses were either sold off or divested. 

During this Reform Phase, important policy initiatives and benchmarks include:

1991 Economic Reforms: In 1991, the Indian government unveiled a comprehensive program of economic reforms in response to a balance of payments problem. Trade liberalization, currency devaluation, and the elimination of the industrial licensing system were all included in this package.

Industrial Policy Reforms: To lessen bureaucratic constraints, foster competition, and entice private investment, industrial policies were updated. The New Industrial Policy of 1991 sought to improve the climate for investors. Import tariffs were gradually lowered to encourage competition and broaden access to foreign goods as part of trade policy reforms. Plans for promoting exports were put in place to increase India's exports of goods and services.

Financial Sector Reforms: To liberalize interest rates, bolster the banking system, and promote private sector involvement in banking, considerable reforms were made to the financial and banking industries. 

Foreign Investment Policy: FDI regulations were loosened and industries were made more accessible to FDI. Additionally, India created SEZs, or special economic zones, to promote international business and companies that focus on exports.

Information Technology and Telecommunications: The opening of the telecommunications industry to private investment resulted in a sharp increase in the use of mobile phones. India became a hub for international IT services as a result of the IT sector's rapid rise.

Budget Stabilization: To promote a stable macroeconomic environment, measures were implemented to control budget deficits and strengthen fiscal restraint.1994 National Telecom Policy, Section 

The Department of Telecommunication (DOT), Government of India, created the National Telecom Policy 1994 as a result of the rapid change in the overall situation of the Indian telecommunication industry. Additionally, the Indian National Telecom Policy of 1994 introduced a number of changes to the country's earlier the telecommunications policy. The two primary regulatory authorities for the Indian telecommunications sector are the "Telecom Regulatory Authority of India" (TRAI) and the "Department of Telecommunication" (DOT). 

National Telecom Policy 1999

The study of the Group on Telecommunication served as the foundation for the 1999 New Telecom Policy. A high-level group on telecommunications (GoT) was established by the government to examine the National Telecom Policy of 1994, which is the current telecom policy. A new telecom policy was primarily necessary since the objectives of the National Telecom Policy of 1994 were not met within the allotted time frame, and on the other hand, there had been tremendous advancements in information and communication technology. The Government of India developed the National Telecom Policy (NTP) in 1999 as a fundamental policy framework to address the expanding telecommunications industry and its development in the nation. 

The New Telecommunications Policy of 1999 has the following goals: 

•Ensuring access to cost-effective and effective telecommunications for all citizens. Establish a balance between high level services and universal services provided to all untapped areas.

•Promote the construction of telecommunications infrastructure in the nation's isolated, mountainous, and tribal regions.

•Establishing a cutting-edge, effective telecommunications network based on the convergence of consumer electronics, media, telecom, and IT to help India become an IT superpower.

The Policy made TRAI's function in the telecommunications sector clear. This was done in response to the issue whereby the DoT hesitated to recognize the TRAI's authority over certain legal issues. It was stated that the TRAI was qualified to hear telecom-related lawsuits and to give guidance to the government. 

National Education Policy (1992)

The P. V. Narasimha Rao administration changed the National Policy on Education from 1986 in 1992. The "Common Minimum Programme" of his United Progressive Alliance (UPA) administration served as the foundation for a new strategy that Former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh adopted in 2005. Under the National Policy on Education (NPE) of 1986, the corresponding Program of Action (PoA) of 1992 envisioned holding a common entrance exam for admission to professional and technical programs across the nation. 

Early childhood education and care is a feature of the 1992 New Education Policy.

•Universalization of Elementary Education – UEE

The POA also had the goal of achieving the UEE targets. For kids who are unable to attend full-time schools, it proposed a number of innovations and revamped programs including "Non-Formal Education.

•Navodaya Vidyalayas to Improve the Quality of Education

The POA of 1992 envisioned the establishment of Navodaya Vidyalayas all over the country. These institutions were designed to support outstanding achievers regardless of their socio-economic status.

Reform Phase: UPA Government

(I) Agriculture and Farmers Welfare reforms

In order to expand the Indian economy and open it up to the world market, reforms were started in 1991. These changes had a substantial impact on the agricultural and farmers' welfare sectors even though they were primarily directed at the industrial and service sectors. India also signed the UR (Uruguay Round) trade agreements, which cover agriculture. All of the countries were required to liberalize agriculture as part of the UR pledges. The majority of agricultural products had very high tariffs. Additionally, the law was changed so that farmers can now seek bank loans up to Rs. 3 lakh.   Some of the important projects and reforms include:

Agricultural Marketing Reforms: By permitting contract farming and private players, the authorities has taken moves to liberalize the agricultural markets. With these measures, the market would be more competitive and farmers' produce would fetch a higher price. To assist the agricultural industry in achieving 4% annual growth, the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana was launched. 

Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) in Agriculture: In an effort to cut down on leaks and ensure that welfare programs are more effectively targeted, the government has started using DBT to send incentives as well as benefits directly to farmers' bank accounts. On December 12, 2014, DBT was further extended throughout the nation. 

Agricultural Credit: Through a number of programs, including the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and interest subvention, the government has increased the amount of credit available to farmers. The Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme was introduced in 1998 and calls for banks to issue Kisan Credit Cards to farmers based on their holdings. The Kisan Credit Card initiative intends to provide farmers with flexible and streamlined financial assistance through financial institutions through a single window for their farming 

National Food Security Act (NFSA):  The National Food Security Act, passed by the UPA government in 2013, sought to give subsidized food grains to around two-thirds of the Indian populace. The Act was designed to protect farmers and other vulnerable groups in society from food insecurity 

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Although this plan was started under the previous NDA administration, it was further expanded by the UPA administration. MGNREGA provided a safety net for landowners during difficult agricultural seasons by guaranteeing 100 days of pay work annually to rural households. 

National Horticulture Mission (NHM): The NHM was established to increase horticulture productivity and develop the infrastructure for post-harvest management and selling of horticultural crops. The primary goals of the NHM are to increase production of all horticultural goods (fruits, vegetables, flowers, coco, cashew nuts, plantation crops, etc.) and to expand horticulture to the full extent of the state's capacity. 

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana: In order to create PMKSY, the ongoing irrigation programs, notably the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP), were combined in 2015 by the NDA government, which took office after the UPA government. However, the UPA administration set the groundwork for irrigation plans. 

(II) Affordable Accessible Healthcare

Some of the major measures for accessible and inexpensive healthcare included:

National Rural Health Mission (NRHM): To improve the healthcare system in rural areas, the UPA government introduced the NRHM in 2005. NRHM is to serve the rural population, particularly the most vulnerable populations, with equitable, cheap, and high-quality healthcare. The Empowered Action Group (EAG) States, North Eastern States, Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh have received special attention under the NRHM. This mission concentrated on the well-being of mothers and children, family planning, and access to affordable, high-quality healthcare for the rural population. 

National Health Policy (2002)

The National Health Policy-2002 (NHP) places a high priority on ensuring equitable access to health care throughout the nation's social and geographic diversity. The central government's contribution has been significantly boosted in order to improve the overall public health investment. By increasing the sectoral share of funding, preventive and curative programs at the fundamental health level would be given priority.

Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): The JSY was created as part of NRHM to encourage institutional deliveries among expectant women in rural regions. It reduced the rates of maternal and neonatal mortality by giving pregnant women financial support for giving birth in hospitals. In order to implement Janani Suraksha Yojana, the National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS) was altered. 

Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY): The UPA government introduced RSBY, a health insurance program for families living below the poverty line (BPL), in 2008. The program's goal was to protect financially vulnerable households by paying for hospital bills. The Government of India's Ministry of Labour and Employment has introduced RSBY to offer Below Poverty Line (BPL) families access to health insurance. 

Free Drugs and Diagnostics Initiative: The UPA government began a Free Drugs and Diagnostics Initiative in a few public health facilities as part of NRHM. This had the goal of giving people seeking medical care in those facilities access to necessary medications and diagnostic services without charge.  The Free Essential Diagnostics Initiative was started by the Indian government as part of the National Health Mission to address the high out-of-pocket costs for diagnostics (10% OOPE on cost of tests). 

National Urban Health Mission: In order to meet the healthcare demands of urban people and to improve the healthcare system in urban regions, the UPA government created NUHM. The National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) aims to improve the general health of urban residents, but especially of the underprivileged and other disadvantaged groups, by enabling equitable access to high-quality healthcare through a redesigned public health system, collaborative efforts, and community-based mechanisms with the active participation of urban local governments. 

Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs): The ASHA program, which entailed training and hiring female community health workers at the village level to act as a link between the community and the healthcare system, was expanded under the UPA government. Female community health activist with the designation of Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA). This involves a variety of activities, such as promoting knowledge of health care entitlements, particularly among the poor and excluded, and enabling access to health care services. 

Affordable Medicines and Reliable Implants for Treatment (AMRIT) Program: To provide patients with access to high-quality, reasonably priced medications and implants, the UPA government developed the AMRIT program. AMRIT pharmacies were established all across the nation to offer implants and medications at discounted rates. 

National Mental Health Program (NMHP): The NMHP was started by the UPA government to enhance the provision of mental healthcare and raise awareness of mental health problems in the nation. Government of India has been conducting National Mental Health Program (NMHP) beginning 1982 to address the enormous burden of mental diseases and lack of skilled experts in the field of mental health. The Program included the Manpower Development Scheme (Scheme-A & B) in 2009. 

(III) Economic Development 

From 2004 until 2014 during which time the country had substantial economic growth. A number of significant programs and policies that supported India's economic development were put into place while he was in power. With the exception of 2007–2008, while the worldwide severe recession occurred, Singh oversaw typical annual growth rates of around 7.5%–8% from 2004–2014. 

Some of the notable economic developments under this phase are:

• Economic Liberalization: The License Raj was abolished, trade restrictions were eased, and foreign direct investment (FDI) was promoted. The liberalization initiatives promoted economic expansion and attracted capital. Several crucial liberalization factors that supported economic expansion during his presidency include:

• Fiscal Responsibility: The administration implemented fiscal responsibility policies, which included limiting budget deficits and cutting back on unnecessary spending. This supported investor confidence and economic stability.

• Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Liberalization initiatives loosened limits on FDI in a number of sectors, luring capital into the nation from abroad. This inflow of cash aided in the construction of infrastructure, the creation of jobs, and technological breakthroughs.

• Industrial Reforms: The government promoted strategies that promoted private sector involvement and lowered administrative barriers for firms. This stimulated investment in a variety of industries, which supported economic expansion.

• Financial Sector Reforms: To bolster the banking system, increase transparency, and promote financial inclusion, financial sector reforms have been adopted. 

• Trading Liberalization: By lowering import tariffs and removing non-tariff barriers, India significantly opened its markets to foreign commerce. Exports increased and competitiveness was bolstered by this interaction with international markets. 

Infrastructure Development: The nation's infrastructure was a priority for the government, which made investments in power, ports, airports, and highways. The focus on infrastructure development enabled economic activity and improved connectivity. Project for the Development of the Golden Quadrilateral and National Highways: During Manmohan Singh's presidency, the Golden Quadrilateral project, started by the previous administration, continued to be a significant infrastructure improvement. 

Rural Infrastructure Development: Through programs like the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), the government concentrated on enhancing rural infrastructure. In order to improve accessibility, connectivity, and economic prospects for those living in remote locations, PMGSY sought to create all-weather road connectivity to rural communities. The Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) sought to electrify villages all throughout the nation and give access to energy to rural households. 

• Development of urban infrastructure: The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was a pioneering initiative designed to enhance urban administration and infrastructure in Indian cities. It put a special emphasis on initiatives for sanitation, transportation, and urban renewal.  Enlargement of the Delhi Metro Rail system continued all throughout this time, giving the nation's capital and its surrounding territories' public transit a much-needed boost. 

• Bharat Nirman: This time-limited program was started to hasten the building of infrastructure in rural India. It includes initiatives for rural connectivity, housing, water supply, and irrigation. 

• Telecom and information technology: The government pushed to enlarge and update the infrastructure for these two sectors. The mobile and internet industries had substantial expansion during this time period, promoting digital accessibility and connectivity. 

• Modernization and Expansion of Ports and Airports: To promote trade and tourism, the government concentrated on renovating and enlarging ports and airports nationwide. 

• Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY): This housing program was first introduced in 1985 but was given increased attention and money under the Manmohan Singh administration. The program was designed to give low-income households in rural areas financial support so they could build homes. 

• Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY): RKVY was a centrally supported program that was introduced in 2007–2008 to promote different state-level agriculture and related activities. It aimed to support the agricultural industry, raise productivity, and guarantee sustainable growth. 

• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY): Although the PMGSY was launched in 2000, it was given more financing and momentum under the Manmohan Singh administration. The project's goal was to connect isolated rural settlements with a population of 500 or more people to all-weather roads. 

• National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM): NRLM, also referred to as Aajeevika, was established in 2011 with the goal of reducing rural poverty by encouraging self-employment and giving the underprivileged a sustainable means of subsistence. 

• Inclusive Growth in Agriculture: To boost farmer production and income, the government undertook a number of agricultural reforms, including the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and the National Food Security Mission (NFSM). 

• Inclusive Finance: To foster entrepreneurship and give underprivileged people more power, the government sponsored microfinance organizations and encouraged the flow of credit to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). 

• Information technology (IT) and IT-enabled services (IteS): India emerged as a major global center for software development, IT outsourcing, and back-office operations during this time. The development of infrastructure and legislative initiatives by the government helped the IT and IteS businesses grow actively. 

• Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): To utilize public and private sector strengths and resources for the advancement of infrastructure, technology, and research activities, the government supported PPPs.  

(IV) National Security

The UPA administration undertook a number of initiatives and programs to solve national security issues and advance the interests of the nation. During this time, there were a number of security challenges to India, including terrorism, insurgency, and outside pressure. The government's strategy for ensuring national security included both local and foreign components. It is significant to remember that India's national security environment is dynamic and complicated, and that overcoming security difficulties necessitates on-going efforts and policy adaptation. 

(V) Foreign Policy

The UPA government maintained a proactive and active foreign policy that attempted to improve India's reputation internationally, advance economic interests, and create harmonious relations with regional allies and powerful nations. The foreign policy of the UPA administration aimed to balance India's national interests, regional dynamics, and international obligations. It sought to uphold India's dedication to the values of peace, non-alignment, and respect for one another while positioning India as a responsible and significant global participant 

(VI) Alleviation of Business in India 

Protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): The Indian government has taken steps to increase the protection of IPR, which is essential for companies to 

(VII) Infrastructure Initiatives

Government of India launched a number of measures to solve the nation's housing and infrastructural problems. These programs sought to increase physical connectedness, give everyone access to inexpensive housing, and raise standards of living generally. These initiatives, which catered to the requirements of both urban and rural areas, significantly contributed to the improvement of India's housing and infrastructure sectors. Among the major housing and infrastructural projects are:

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission JNNURM was established in 2005 with the goal of enhancing urban infrastructure and governance in particular cities. It concentrated on initiatives for urban poor housing, public transportation, water supply, and sanitation. 

The National Highway Development Project (NHDP) aims to promote road connectivity and facilitate the flow of goods and people throughout the nation by enlarging and modernizing the national highway network. 

Launched in 2005, the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) sought to provide small and medium-sized towns with essential urban infrastructure, with a particular emphasis on solid waste management, water supply, and sanitation. 

Inexpensive Housing Programs: The government launched a number of programs and incentives to encourage the development of inexpensive housing for various segments of society, including the LIG and EWS (economically weaker sectors). 

Smart Cities Mission: Although the Smart Cities Mission was introduced in 2015, the groundwork for it was established prior to 2014. By putting a strong emphasis on urban development that is sustainable and technology-driven, the project aspired to transform a few cities into smart cities. 

The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (NUHHP), which was created in 2007, sought to advance the development of affordable, accessible, and durable urban housing. 

(VIII) Science and Technology

The government focused on several significant initiatives and policies in the fields of science and technology.

Nuclear Deal: One of the most prominent achievements during Manmohan Singh’s government was the Indo-US civilian nuclear deal. It aimed to enhance India’s nuclear energy capabilities by allowing access to civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries, despite not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). 

Space Research: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) achieved several milestones during this period. In 2008, India successfully launched the Chandrayaan-1 mission, its first lunar probe, which made significant discoveries, including the presence of water molecules on the moon’s surface. Additionally, India’s Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) launched in 2013, made India the first Asian country to reach Mars orbit and the fourth space agency globally to do so. 

National Telecom Policy 2012

In order to ensure that India fulfills this role efficiently and successfully transforms the socioeconomic environment with intensified sustainable and equitable growth in the economy, the National Telecom Policy-2012 places a special emphasis on delivering high-quality and reasonably priced telecommunications facilities to isolated and rural regions. The main goal of this strategy is to emphasize how crucial it is for continuous technology adoption to provide workable solutions for resolving developmental difficulties in a variety of areas, including education, health, job creation, financial inclusion, and many more.

(IX) Policy Reforms for Marginalized Section

During which time significant policy changes were put into place to promote and uplift society’s most vulnerable groups. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural work Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), a ground-breaking social welfare program, aimed to give rural households, including those in marginalized areas, work possibilities by promising 100 days of pay employment per fiscal year. MGNREGA had a significant role in reducing rural poverty and improving the standard of living for numerous underprivileged people. 

The National Food Security Act (NFSA) was passed in 2013 to guarantee food security for the population’s most vulnerable groups. Under this law, the system for public distribution (PDS) distributed subsidized food grains to qualified recipients, especially underprivileged households. 

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act: To shield marginalized communities from prejudice, retaliation, and violence, the government seeks to reinforce the enactment of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act. 

Urban Housing and Slum Development: With a focus on underprivileged urban populations, the government launched a number of projects to enhance housing and living circumstances for urban slum dwellers. 

National Minorities Development and Finance Corporation (NMDFC) was established to aid linguistic and religious minorities in their socioeconomic development through a variety of financial support programs. 

Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY): To shield vulnerable households from overbearing medical costs, the RSBY provided health insurance coverage to families living below the poverty line. 

Administrative Reform Commission 2005

ARC reports, are published by the Administrative Reforms Commission, which is engaged by the Government of India. These papers are crucial resources for efficient public administration, governance, and much more. There are primarily two ARC reports: the first ARC report, which was released by the first ARC established in 1966, and the second ARC report, which was released by the second ARC established in 2005.On August 31, 2005, the Indian government established the 2nd ARC Report in accordance with resolution K-11022/9/2004-RC. It was created to develop a comprehensive plan to reform India’s public administration system. Veerappa Moily led the commission initially in his capacity as chair. However, once he stepped down in 2009, V. Ramachandran assumed leadership duties. In order to achieve a realistic, adaptable, accountable environmentally friendly and competent public administration throughout all levels of government in India, the 2nd ARC Report was given the authority to make some helpful recommendations. Additionally, 15 reports covering various public administration fields were released by the 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission. 

The Government of India rejected the suggestions made by the 2nd ARC on issues including judicial reform and ties between the federal and state governments, as well as fields consisting of defense of the nation, security, and intelligence, among others. Two different types of improvements were suggested in the 2nd ARC report. Changes to administrative setups, processes, and practices are the first. 

Table 3: List of ARC Reports 

Lateral Entry Reform

The process of hiring people from outside the conventional bureaucratic structure to fill senior-level posts in the government is known as lateral entry. In India, the idea of lateral entrance into the bureaucracy has been growing popularity recently in order to supplement the current civil service with specialized knowledge, domain expertise, and new viewpoints. It is vital to remember that lateral entry is a relatively new notion in the Indian bureaucracy and is still developing. Various government agencies and ministries may have various policies regarding the magnitude and breadth of lateral entry roles.  The Indian government has started a number of initiatives to make lateral entry within the bureaucracy easier. 

Integration with the Bureaucracy: Lateral entrants are expected to work in tandem with career government employees to promote efficient governance. The goal is to create beneficial outcomes by using the advantages for each lateral entry and the current bureaucracy.

Sectoral Expertise: Lateral entry attempts to recruit experts from a variety of sectors, including academia, business, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations. This makes it possible to bring in expertise and experience in particular policy fields.