Politics Of Climate Change: India’s Approach in the Evolving International Scenario

Over the last few decades, India’s role in global climate governance has considerably changed from a protest voice during 1970s and 1980s to actively shaping international efforts in dealing with climate change. Today, as part of its foreign policy goals and objectives, India shares greater responsibility in management of the global commons. The 1972 Stockholm conference initiated the grand beginning of a series of negotiations and discussions over international environmental agreement. Thereafter, in Rio Earth Summit (1992) the sovereign states unanimously agreed on the UN Framework Conventions on Climate Change; the UN Convention to Combat Desertification; and the Convention on Biological Diversity. One of the important outcomes of the Rio Summit was the creation of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development. This framework formed the basis of international cooperation on environmental issues. Interestingly, over the last few decades, India’s position on climate diplomacy has undergone radical transformations from highlighting the issues of environmental colonialism in the 1980s towards the principles of common but differentiated responsibilities and pro-active engagements in climate governance framework in the twenty first century. In this backdrop, the present paper aims to study the fundamental shift in India’s role in global climate governance in the post-cold war years through the prism of the English School of international relations theory, also known as liberal realism.

Global climate governance is a continuous process that involves the active participation of sovereign states, non-state actors, and even all the individuals. It is a framework aimed at preventing or mitigating the risks posed by climate change. In other words, climate governance means efficient management of the global climate system. Among all the major challenges the world faces today, climate change is the most daunting global policy challenges. (Coen and others) It affects all sections of the society indiscriminately. Climate governance is linked with the well-being of nature and people and therefore involves actions at all levels – global, regional and local.

Global average temperature has been on the rise and by far the decade of 2010s were the hottest on record. During last about two decades, millions of people lost their lives due to extreme weather conditions, according to Germanwatch. Global Climate Risk Index1. Some parts of the globe have been affected by extensive heat waves and wild fires resulting in severe imbalance in the global climate framework. Countries are largely affected by natural catastrophes compounded by climate change. Rise in sea level has threatened livelihoods of people, especially living in and around low lying areas and small island states. This has resulted in forced migration and food insecurity. Table 1 gives details of the list of ten most affected/vulnerable countries in 2018.

Over the years, governance of the natural environment has emerged as one of the most complex challenges faced by humanity. Accordingly, environment has been gradually incorporated in the agenda at all levels of governance, from global to local. Environmental governance encompasses a combination of efforts in the fields of sustainable development, environmental management and environmental sustainability, which requires a comprehensive environment governance strategy.

Environmental resources are essential ingredients in order to sustain quality of life and for the promotion of economic progress. It is, therefore necessary to develop good environmental management system. During the last couple of decades - due to the large-scale industrialisation combined with massive developmental activities in some parts of the globe2 - environmental resources are increasingly coming under severe stress. Therefore, the economic development of society has to be sustainable from socio-economic, ecological, legal and environmental point of views. Hence there is a need for effective global environmental governance.

Before we proceed further, let us define the concept of governance. Governance is the process of decision-making and their implementation within a stipulated time frame. Governance means greater interaction between the state/ government on the one hand and private sector including markets and civil society on the other. Governance also implies dynamic interaction between people, structures, processes and traditions that strengthen the role of legitimate authority which gives right kind of leadership and direction for the conduct of all affairs of the state. Governance refers to sustainable improvement in the quality of life of all citizens in any given state. (Nallathiga, 2012) From this perspective, environmental governance and good governance are synonymous terms which take us to the direction of just environmental governance.

This presentation analyses India’s participation in global climate conference framework during the span of past four decades, especially since 1972 Stockholm Conference held under the auspices of the United Nations. Since then, India’s environment policy has undergone major transformations from a protest voice on the fringes of global climate policy to some voluntary commitments to one that is actively engaged in shaping international efforts to deal with climate related challenges. The present paper aims to 9*-+address the following key questions:

(a) What are the reasons behind shift in India’s environment policy?

(b) What are the important steps undertaken by the Modi government towards addressing the issue of climate change?

(c) Is there any linkage between India’s economic growth and focus on safeguarding the natural environment?

During the initial decades, Indian environment experts had focussed on the competing motives of equity and co-benefits, which is, however not sufficient to explain India’s proactive standpoint in the field of global climate governance in contemporary years. Further, it needs to be mentioned that India’s climate policy has been closely integrated with its overall foreign policy trends that emphasise on sharing of greater responsibility in management of the global commons. In other words, India’s climate policy has been the upshot of its broad foreign policy trends and directions. However, before we move forward, it would be appropriate to submit few statistics, which would enable us to understand India’s climate policy better.

Research findings on the study on Green House Gas (GHG) emissions during 1850 to 2012 shows that cumulative emissions in the period from the USA, EU and China would contribute to 50% of the temperature by 2100 (20 percent, 17 percent & 12 percent respectively). (Mohan, 2017) During the period, India’s emission volume was just 5 percent. This apart, India’s per capita emissions are low at around a third of the global average; Indian electricity consumption per capita is roughly a quarter of the global average and stood at just 10 percent when compared with the advanced countries. (Mohan, 2017) As far as the present scenario is concerned, India is the world’s third largest emitter with rising emissions and therefore, it is imperative that New Delhi plays a proactive role in policy-making at the global and national levels.

The 28th Conference of the Parties (COP-28) of the United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCC) that took place in December 2023 in Dubai has adopted a very positive approach in reducing the volume of use of fossil fuel. Till date, the international community had avoided even mention of fossil fuel in any climate agreements. There used to be severe resistance from the major oil and gas producing countries. This marks a significant breakthrough towards addressing the root causes of climate change. (Bhushan) In fact, the COP-28 remains memorable because of more than one reasons. For the first time the Conference Parties agreed in principle to extend financial support up to USD 800 million to the vulnerable developing countries in dealing with climate impact,. (Bhushan, 2023). Though considering the volume of problems, it is a very meagre amount, still it may be considered as an important milestone in the climate justice movement, as rightly stated by Chandra Bhushan.

Under India’s presidency, the G-20 nations adopted an important decision to triple renewable energy capacity by 2030. It would be worth mentioning that at the COP-27, India was the first such country to demand gradual reduction of all fossil fuels, not just coal, to accelerate climate action, (Bhushan, 2025) In order to have a complete grasp on India’s climate policy, it would be pertinent to divide it into three distinct phases.

Phase One: 1972 to 1992 –Environmental governance in India started right after the United Nations Conference on Human, Environment and Development in Stockholm in 1972. The 42nd Amendment to the Indian Constitution (1976) incorporated the provisions relating to the protection of environment. Thereafter, a National Environmental Planning and Coordination Committee was set up by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The Department of Environment came into being in November 1980, and the Environment Protection Act was passed by the Parliament of India in 1986. At the international level, New Delhi identified itself with the G-77 nations and led the protest voice against the West.

In the early 1970s, the idea of economic growth became an important issue in respect of sustainable environment. The 1972 UN Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm debated the concept of economic growth versus sustainable environment. The then Prime Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi took personal initiatives, though for different reasons, to safeguard the environment. It was observed by Mrs. Gandhi, that environment cannot be developed in condition of poverty, the major cause and effect of global environmental problems. (Sarkar, 2019) Mrs. Gandhi - who represented India at the Non-alignment forum as the leader of the developing world – used the environmental issue and earned international fame. Back home, she used this issue to consolidate her power and authority. Environmental concerns provided an opportunity for constitutional reforms that enhanced the influence of the Central government.

In 1972, the Central Pollution Control Board was set up. Thereafter, Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was passed in 1974. The Act established a network of State and Central Pollution Control Boards. Since then, there had been ample legislative activities in the country. Indian Constitution was amended3 in 1976 which incorporated the environmental protection law. (Environment and Politics in India, 2019) The subject of forests and environmental protection were brought under the Concurrent List. (Damodaran, 2012) Accordingly, forests, wildlife and coastal areas were subjected to Federal Government regulations and legislations.

The National Environmental Awareness Campaign (NEAC) was started in 1986 for spreading environmental awareness at all levels. The Government of India took an important initiative where by environmental concepts and related issues were introduced in the syllabi of schools, colleges, universities, and various professional management courses. Workshops were conducted to develop new curriculum and also to promote resource base for technical material. (Nallathiga, 2012)

Phase Two (1992-2007): Immediately after the United Nations’ Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, the Government of India issued an environment policy and strategy. Then in 1996, the government followed the environmental governance system with a series of controlling measures/notification on coastal zone management, hill development, disposal of biomedical, plastic, and hazardous wastes.

Good environmental governance in the Indian context in fact required a strong policy-making and implementation on the part of Union and state governments that maintain a perfect balance between sustainable environment and development. After taking into account these factors, UPA government led by Manmohan Singh drafted a new environment policy that was subsequently approved by the Union Cabinet on May 18, 2006. (Nallathiga, 2012) The policy document was an outcome of extensive consultations with experts, ministers, Members of Parliament, state governments, industry associations, academic and research institutes, civil society representatives, NGOs and the public. In this context, it would be appropriate to state that India’s National Environment Policy (2006) was the first important initiative on the part of Federal Government to integrate global, national and local environmental considerations into a policy framework for addressing the pressing environmental sustainability challenges facing the country.

Prior to the National Environmental Policy (NEP) 2006, several policies were adopted by the Government of India4 that served its background. National Forest Policy (1988), National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development (1992), the Policy Statement on Abatement of Pollution (1992) were introduced. (Nallathiga, 2012) The NEP was very comprehensive in nature and it filled several gaps that existed. The most important part of NEP was that while conservation of environmental resources was necessary to secure livelihoods and well-being of all, it was also necessary to ensure that people dependent on particular resources obtain better livelihoods from conservation, rather than from degradation of the resources. The NEP also focussed on the need to promote partnerships between different stakeholders in harnessing their respective resources.

The following are the important objectives of NEP (Nallathiga, 2012): (i) Conservation of critical environmental Resources; (ii) Livelihood security for the poor; (iii) Inter-generational equity; (iv) Integration of Environmental concerns in Economic and social development; (v) Efficiency in environmental Resourc Use; (vi) Environmental governance; and (vii) Enhancement of resources for environmental resource conservation.

The Government of India also set up the National Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) authority that started functioning since 2003 and approved 25 projects to promote sustainable development. (Nallathiga, 2012). For the promotion of renewable energy, energy from waste, resource conservation and energy efficiency, a ‘Climate Technology Bazar’ was organised to showcase the importance of environmentally- sound and climate friendly technologies. This apart, several activities were undertaken to promote awareness about the detrimental effects of ozone depleting substances. The national phase out plan for production and consumption of CFC was approved. Similarly, the National Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Service Sector Strategy and Policy and Customs Training Strategy were prepared and subsequently approved. (Nallathiga, 2012) Besides, important policies/ programmes were undertaken relating to water resource management, afforestation, eco-development and conservation activities, etc.

Thus, following Rio, India continued to play an active role in global climate negotiations with a focus on voluntary commitments, albeit at a very limited scale. Kyoto Protocol in 1997 required the developed countries to go for quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives, while the developing nations like India were exempted from any legally binding commitments. Meanwhile the concept of ‘emerging economies’ came to the picture. India, China, Brazil, South Africa were termed as emerging economies in the developing world. There were increasing expectations from these countries to take additional responsibilities.

Phase Three [2008 onwards]: This phase has been marked by New Delhi’s constructive engagement in policy-making and commitment sharing. In 2008, India came out with ‘National Action Plan on Climate Change’. New Delhi’s emphasis on safeguarding global environment got a major boost with the change of government at the Centre in 2014 onwards.

Since 2014, the NDA government has taken several important steps in safeguarding the environment. (Das, 2021) The biggest ever cleanliness drive has been initiated under the tag Swachch Bharat Abhiyaan that covers as many as 4041 towns and aimed at cleaning streets, roads, and infrastructure. Clean Ganga Mission is a dream project of Narendra Modi which has been introduced under the direct supervision of water Resource Ministry. There has been focus on bringing down national air quality index. Affordable sanitization facilities for the poor have been introduced. Water conservation measures have been taken.

On August 3, 2022, the Government of India passed the updated Nationally Determined Contribution for consideration by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) following the Parih Agreement. (Sharma, 2023) The objective has been to reach India’s goal of net zero emission by the year 2070.

Environmental Debates: Environmental debates in India generated in the backdrop of Bhopal gas leak in 1984 that led to the Environmental Protection Act of 1986. However, the development strategy adopted by the Indian Government is defective in many respects. According to a World Bank report, the total cost of environmental damages in India in 1992 was around USD 9.7 billion that was equivalent to 4.5 percent of its GDP. In contrast, in the West, the average annual environmental damage was estimated at somewhere between one to two percent. It was 2.6 percent in respect of China. (Environment and Politics in India).

The massive economic growth experienced by India over the recent decades has resulted in many unwelcome consequences. The rapid pace of industrialisation and economic growth has resulted in unhealthy air and water pollution that seriously affect infant mortality rates and life expectancy rates. (Striessing, Schopp, and Amann, 2013) In fact, the tension between economic development and the imperative to curb greenhouse gas emission has been one of the most important challenges not only for India but for the whole world. Over the last few decades, a number of environmental movements6 have taken place across the country. Objects of development like dams, hydroelectric power projects, mining and mechanised fishing have been criticised on the ground that a large number of indigenous people have been evicted from their habitat and thus livelihoods have been taken away. Natural resources on which people are directly dependent – forests, land, seeds, and water bodies such as rivers, lakes, the sea, groundwater, etc. – have been defended by several movements from being over-exploited for fulfilling increasing demands of the market. These movements compelled the federal government to introduce new rules and regulations that safeguarded the environment along with the interests of marginalised workers/ tribal and peasants. (Priyam; Bannerji, 2009) More importantly, these movements introduced new ideas in the public space that did not exist earlier and thereby made it possible to influence public policy and other interventions in the public space.

India’s major challenges are directly attributable to its extremely high population density, especially in urban areas. The increase in number of large cities with a million plus population has further compounded to the existing environmental challenges. This apart, traditional agricultural practices in the country also contribute to multiplication of environmental challenges.

Followers of Mahatma Gandhi in India have been the most important critiques of western notion of development. In the Hind Swaraj (1909), Gandhi had offered a critique of modern civilization that became the basis of his critique of British rule in India. Gandhi believed that the basic characteristics of modernity destroy the relationship between human beings and nature. This results in violence and conflict antithetical to true progress of the society. Hence, Gandhi expressed his views in support of retaining the traditional structure of work and consumption of the village community in India. This, according to him, upholds the values of harmony between human beings and nature. According to him, this fabric has been fully destroyed by modernisation and colonisation.

Assessment

Lot more needs to be done. Taking into account the volume of challenges and the stance taken by the so-called developed nations of the West, steps so far taken are insufficient and inadequate to address the point of rise in global temperature. It is a fact that the developed countries have time and again failed to keep up their commitments towards global climate issues. The irony is that they continue to invest in fossil fuel related infrastructure. Moreover, they have not even met their own commitments of providing financial support to the developing world to the tune of around USD 100 billion. (Bhushan, 2023) Beijing’s adamant approach in dealing with climate related issues is another important area to be taken note of.

Despite many weak points, the decisions reached at the COP-28 are of immense significance. Participating countries’ positive approach reflected a growing recognition of the urgency of global climate action and fresh beginning has been made.

Notes

1. German watch Global Climate Risk Index analyses quantified impacts of extreme weather events. Its aims to contextualise climate policy debates. It focuses on the level of vulnerability to extreme weather conditions countries; which the across the globe face today.

References

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