Investigating General Public’s Perspective on Air Pollution Causes: A Study of Lucknow City’s Residential, Commercial and Industrial Areas

Abstract

Air pollution is a critical global concern, posing substantial health risks and environmental degradation, and public perceptions of its causes can vary significantly based on location and socio-economic factors. This study focuses on the diverse perceptions of air pollution causes among residents in different areas of Lucknow City, including residential, commercial, and industrial zones. For this purpose, the exploratory research design was applied and primary data was collected through a structured questionnaire on a sample of 523 respondents taken through the purposive sampling technique.

The results revealed that Lucknow’s air quality is uneven; commercial and industrial areas have higher pollution levels, while residential areas are better. However, the overall AQI remains a concern. The paper highlights the importance of localised approaches in combating air pollution and enhancing urban environmental health.

Keywords

Air Pollution, Residential areas, Commercial- cum- residential areas and Industrial- cum- residential areas.

Introduction

Air pollution is a critical global issue impacting human health, with urban air commonly containing pollutants like particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NO), sulphur oxides (SO), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (World Health Organisation, 2022). Fine particles, such as PM2.5, are particularly concerning due to their ability to penetrate deep into the respiratory system, leading to diseases like respiratory and cardiovascular ailments, lung cancer, and adverse birth outcomes (Anderson et al., 2012; Cohen et al., 2017). Chronic conditions such as asthma, COPD, and heart disease can arise from long-term exposure, while acute exposure can exacerbate existing health issues, resulting in increased hospital admissions (Dominici et al., 2006). Additionally, air pollution affects children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing conditions more severely (WHO, 2022). The broader societal impacts include reduced quality of life, economic burdens on healthcare systems, decreased labour productivity, environmental degradation, and contributions to climate change (Wang et al., 2017).

Public perception plays a crucial role in the effectiveness of air quality control measures. Awareness and understanding of air pollution’s health impacts can significantly influence public behaviour and support for regulatory policies. For instance, when individuals recognise the health risks associated with poor air quality, they are more likely to adopt measures to reduce pollution, such as reducing car usage, adopting cleaner technologies, and supporting policy initiatives aimed at improving air quality. Effective communication strategies are essential to raise awareness and foster a sense of urgency among the public and policymakers (Liu X et al., 2016).

Furthermore, public perception affects policy effectiveness. Policies that align with public concerns and have strong community support are more likely to succeed. Engaging the public in air quality monitoring and reporting can enhance transparency and accountability, fostering trust in regulatory agencies. This engagement ensures that the diverse needs and priorities of different community groups are considered, leading to more effective and equitable policies. (Fiorino D, 2018; Brunt H et al., 2017).

In Lucknow, a city classified as non-attainment due to its high pollution levels, air quality challenges are significant. Lucknow’s severe air quality issues have gained international attention, ranking the city among the top 15 most polluted globally, according to the World Air Quality Report 2019 (IQAir, 2019).

Studies by Bojjagani S et al., (2023) identify major pollution sources, including vehicular exhaust, resuspended road dust, cooking fuel emissions, waste burning, diesel generator exhaust, secondary aerosols, and construction activities, particularly affecting PM2.5 levels in residential areas. Kumar & Dwivedi, (2023) observed elevated levels of PM2.5, PM10, SO, and NO during Diwali, attributing these spikes to firecracker emissions. Srivastava & Shukla, (2021) highlighted the critical role of vehicular emissions, especially from motorcycles, in contributing to CO, HC, NO, and PM levels, recommending measures such as AVOID (avoiding unnecessary travel), SHIFT (shifting to cleaner transportation), and IMPROVE (improving vehicle efficiency), along with public awareness campaigns. Despite these efforts, Siddiqui A.A et al., (2019) found that Lucknow often exceeds the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM2.5, PM10 and SPM. Given the severity of air pollution in Lucknow, understanding public perspectives across different localities is crucial for developing targeted interventions and improving air quality standards.

Objectives of the study

1. To analyse Lucknow’s air quality using PM10, SO2, NO2, and AQI measures in residential, commercial, and industrial zones.

2. To explore the most pressing reasons for air pollution from the perspective of general public living in different localities (residential areas, commercial -cum -residential areas & industrial-cum-residential areas) in Lucknow city.

3. To evaluate the association between the type of locality of respondents and the reasons for air pollution.

Justification and Need of the Study

Air pollution in Lucknow, is a complex issue, and tackling it effectively requires a multifaceted approach. Public perception plays a crucial role in shaping attitudes and behaviours. This study delves into how residents across Lucknow’s distinct localities — residential areas, commercial-residential zones, and industrial-residential neighbourhoods — perceive the most pressing causes of air pollution. By exploring these diverse viewpoints, we can gain valuable insights into the public’s understanding of the problem. These insights will be instrumental in crafting targeted communication strategies and community engagement initiatives that resonate with residents in each area. By fostering a shared understanding of air pollution’s causes within Lucknow’s diverse communities, we can empower residents to become active participants in improving the city’s air quality.

Literature Review

Tvinnereim et al., (2017) found that citizens primarily linked glacier melt and sea-level rise to global warming, while smog was seen as a result of air pollution. They associated health impacts and pollution from vehicles or industries with both air pollution and global warming. Ramírez et al., (2017) reported that 80 per cent of respondents considered their local air quality to be poor or fair, with 65 per cent identifying particulate matter as the primary pollutant and 90 per cent acknowledging its health risks. Unlike other studies that highlight age and economic status, this study found that city size significantly influenced perceptions, with mining and infrastructure seen as major pollutants in smaller towns and road traffic in larger cities. Liao X et al., (2015) pinpointed motor vehicles (78.5%), waste burning (56.3%), and industrial facilities (53.7%) as the top sources of air pollution. In contrast, Shi, X., He, F (2012) found that residents in coal mining areas attributed pollution mainly to coal processing rather than the mining itself. This differentiation highlights how the perception of pollution sources can vary based on local industrial activities.

Prasad & Sanyal (2016) observed that the air quality in Lucknow deteriorates significantly during Diwali festivities due to firecracker emissions. Similarly, Saxena P et al., (2022) noted that firecracker use during cultural celebrations releases a wide range of hazardous pollutants into the air. Saini & Kumar (2021) reported improvements in air quality during the COVID-19 lockdown, which led to a significant reduction in both coarse and fine pollutants due to decreased anthropogenic activities.

Fan S et al., (2017) found that worsening air quality heightened parental concern about their children’s health, with motor vehicle emissions and passive smoke identified as major risk factors for respiratory illnesses. Stevens E et al., (2004) also emphasised traffic pollution as a significant cause and exacerbator of asthma. Yan Y (2016) reported that 72 per cent of Chinese respondents felt that air pollution had affected their health, with younger people showing more concern. Evans G. W et al., (1988) discovered that although residents were somewhat aware of air pollution and its health effects, their direct actions to mitigate exposure were limited. Awareness and personal beliefs about health effects were crucial in determining compliance with health advisories. Yazdanparast T et al., (2013) found that familiarity with the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) was low among parents, with limited knowledge on daily air quality. Reyes-Angel J et al., (2022) noted widespread awareness of air quality alerts, but only a small percentage of parents modified their child’s outdoor activities based on air quality perceptions. Ribeiro et al., (2015) found that while some parents were aware of passive smoking’s health impacts, many were either unaware or underestimated its harm. Rosen J J et al., (2018) highlighted that parental perceptions of exposure to tobacco smoke varied based on visibility, odour, and proximity.

Prasad, & Sanyal, (2016) documented severe air pollution in Lucknow, exacerbated by vehicular traffic and seasonal variations. Mahendra H. N et al., (2023) reported a decrease in SO2 levels but an increase in NO2, impacting air quality. Lawrence and Fatima (2014) recorded PM10 and PM2.5 levels surpassing WHO limits, with high AQI values and significant health impacts in urban areas. Zhan C et al., (2023) scrutinised the escalating air pollution in urban areas due to insufficient attention to environmental concerns. Apte and Salvi (2016) identified indoor tobacco smoking, construction materials, cooking and heating fuels, incense, mosquito repellents, pesticides, cleaning chemicals, and artificial fragrances as key sources of household air pollution.

Kim B et al., (2020) emphasised the importance of education in shaping public opposition to coal-fired power plants. Almetwally AA (2020) reviewed the causes and sources of air pollution, offering solutions for mitigating its effects. Ukaogo P.O et al., (2020) explored pollution causes and effects and suggested solutions for creating a sustainable environment.

The World Air Quality Report (IQAir, 2019) noted severe pollution levels in Indian cities, with temporary improvements observed during lockdowns. Prabhu et al., (2019) noted significant air quality degradation from firecracker use during Diwali. Prior research has highlighted the importance of understanding public perception towards air quality for effective environmental policy (Saksena, 2011). Studies like Sekar et al., (2023) demonstrated how significant air quality improvements can positively influence public perception, showcasing the potential impact of regulations. However, research by Qian et al., (2016) emphasized that factors like age and occupation can influence knowledge levels, suggesting the need for targeted communication strategies in policy development.

Research Methodology

The study used a cross-sectional survey design to capture general public perspectives in Lucknow between December 2023 and January 2024. An exploratory approach was adopted, with data collected through online and physical questionnaires from 523 participants selected via purposive sampling. Initially, 1500 individuals were approached, resulting in a 34.9 per cent response rate after data cleaning.

Data analysis included frequency analysis for demographics, exploratory factor analysis to identify key pollution causes, and chi-square tests to examine relationships between pollution reasons and locality. SPSS version 25 was used for primary data, while secondary data from Lucknow’s air quality measures was analysed with MS Excel 16.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Demographic Profile of General Public

Table 1 presents the demographic profile of the general public surveyed, highlighting key variables such as age, gender, type of housing, locality, religion, education, employment, and income. The majority of respondents were females aged 31–40 years, living in nuclear families and residential areas.

The study’s demographic profile as presented in Table 1 shows a diverse population: 60.2 per cent are aged 31-40 years, and 67.3 per cent are female. Housing types include 39.4 per cent in flats/apartments and 25.2 per cent in terraced houses, with fewer in semi-detached (12.6%) and detached houses (12.4%). The highest representation is from Lucknow North (40.3%), followed by Lucknow East and West (19.9% each). Residential areas dominate (60%), with commercial-residential (30.1%) and industrial-residential (9.9%) areas less common. Religiously, 61 per cent are Hindu, 29.6 per cent Muslim, with smaller percentages of Christians, Sikhs, and others. Most families are nuclear (77.8%), and 49.5 per cent are married with children. Educationally, 34.6 per cent are illiterate, and 81.26 per cent are employed. Income varies, with 41.5 Per cent earning Rs. 75,001-100,000 monthly. Health-wise, 12 per cent have a history of respiratory diseases, mainly on the maternal side (6.9%).

Month-wise Comparison of the Level of Air Pollution in the Residential, Commercial and Industrial Areas in Lucknow in 2023

Table 2 presents a monthly comparison of air quality across different areas of Lucknow categorised as residential, commercial, and industrial for the year 2023. The data includes levels of PM10, SO₂, NO₂, and AQI, showing significantly higher pollution during winter months and relatively cleaner air during monsoon months, especially in residential areas.

Analysis of the data presented in Table 2: The line diagram reveals that air pollution in Lucknow peaks during winter months (December–January) across all locations, with higher PM10 and AQI levels in commercial and industrial zones like Hazratganj and Talkatora. Residential areas such as Mahanagar and Aliganj show relatively better air quality, especially during the monsoon season (July–September), when pollutant levels are lowest.

Figure 1: Level of PM10 in the Residential, Commercial and Industrial Areas in Lucknow in 2023

Figure 1 shows that in Lucknow, PM10 pollution varies significantly: commercial areas like Hazratganj and Ansal T.C. experience high levels, ranging from “Moderate” to “Poor,” especially in winter. Residential areas such as Mahanagar and Aliganj typically have “Good” air quality. The industrial zone of Talkatora faces consistently high PM10 levels, often “Poor” to “Unhealthy.”

Figure 2: Level of SO2 in the Residential, Commercial and Industrial Areas in Lucknow in 2023

It can be seen from the figure 2, SO2 levels in Lucknow are generally low and consistent across all areas, with slight increases from spring to winter. Commercial areas like Hazratganj and Gomtinagar, as well as residential areas like Mahanagar and Aliganj, show similar low SO2 patterns. The industrial area of Talkatora has slightly higher SO2 levels, but the difference is not significant. Overall, SO2 levels are mostly in the “Good” range.

Figure 3: Level of NO2 in the Residential, Commercial and Industrial Areas in Lucknow in 2023

Interpretation-- Figure 3 depicts that NO2 levels in Lucknow fluctuate seasonally, peaking in winter. Residential areas like Mahanagar and Aliganj generally have lower NO2 levels, while commercial hubs such as Hazratganj and Gomtinagar see higher pollution due to traffic and commercial activities. Industrial zones like Talkatora significantly impact overall NO2 levels. Throughout the year, NO2 concentrations are mostly “Good” to “Moderate” in warmer months and can reach “Poor” during colder months (October to February).

Figure 4: Level of AQI in the Residential, Commercial and Industrial Areas in Lucknow in 2023.

It can be said from the figure 4 that AQI levels in Lucknow are higher in winter (December and January) than in summer. Residential areas like Mahanagar and Aliganj have better air quality, while commercial hubs such as Hazratganj, Ansal T.C., and Gomtinagar face “Moderate” to “Poor” AQI levels. Industrial areas like Talkatora experience “Poor” to “Unhealthy” AQI levels year-round.

Figure 5: Map-1. Pre-Monsoon

Map-Based Analysis of Air Quality in Lucknow During the Monsoon Season, 2023

Figure 5 shows elevated PM10 and PM2.5 levels in Lucknow during the pre-monsoon period of 2023, likely due to vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and construction dust. SO2 and NO2 levels are relatively lower, indicating less significant emissions from fossil fuel industries.

Figure 6 displays that post-monsoon air quality in Lucknow is affected by high PM10 and PM2.5 levels, indicating harmful fine particulates. SO2 and NO2 levels are lower, but localised hotspots point to specific emission sources such as industries and vehicular traffic.

Figure 6: Map-2. Post-Monsoon

Factor Analysis

Identifying the most pressing reasons for air pollution from the perspective of general public living in residential areas, commercial-cum-residential areas and industrial-cum-residential areas.

For residential areas, the data is deemed adequate with a KMO measure of sampling adequacy of 0.508 and a significant correlation between variables (0.000), allowing for analysis to proceed. In commercial- cum- residential areas, the data is nearly adequate with a KMO measure of 0.483, also showing sufficient correlation (0.000) to continue the analysis. Similarly, for industrial-cum-residential areas, the data is nearly adequate with a KMO measure of 0.461 and enough correlation (0.000) to proceed with the analysis.

Table 3: Factor Analysis

Table 3 shows that for the general public living in residential areas, component 1 accounts for the highest variance (18.139%) and is the most significant, with key variables highlighted for each component. For those in commercial- cum- residential areas, Component 1 explains the highest variance (20.141%) and is the most significant, with key variables listed. Similarly, for those in industrial- cum- residential areas, Component 1 explains the most variance (20.465%) and is the most significant, with key variables shown for each component.

Chi-Square Analysis

Association between the type of locality of respondents and the variables of reasons for air pollution have been summarised in Table 4.

Table 4: Summary of Chi-Square Analysis

Conclusion and Discussion

Lucknow’s air quality varies significantly, with higher levels of PM10, NO2, and occasionally SO2 found in commercial and industrial zones, especially during winter. Residential areas generally fare better, but the overall AQI remains poor due to fluctuating levels citywide. The study examined public perceptions of air pollution across different localities: residential, commercial-cum-residential, and industrial -cum- residential areas. In residential areas, key concerns included the decay of micro- organisms and open burning of garbage waste, highlighting a need for better waste management. The presence of smoking products in cafes frequented by young people and minors also indicated a need for stricter indoor smoking regulations.

In commercial- cum- residential areas, the loss of green spaces, inadequate urban waste management, and vehicular emissions were identified as major contributors to air pollution. These factors emphasise the need for policies addressing transportation emissions and urban waste management. In industrial-cum-residential areas, dust pollution, loss of green spaces, and certain weather conditions like temperature inversions were prominent issues. The proximity of residential areas to industrial sites exacerbates exposure to pollutants, necessitating stricter regulations on industrial emissions.

The study also found significant associations between the type of locality and several air pollution factors, including spraying pesticides and fertilizers, excavation, demolition and construction activities, diesel generators, traffic congestion, commercial and industrial activities, firecrackers, dust, and loss of green spaces. These findings suggest the need for targeted interventions and policies tailored to the unique challenges of different communities. For example, controlling traffic congestion might be crucial in commercial areas, while preserving green spaces could be prioritised in residential neighbourhoods.

Suggestions

To improve air quality in Lucknow, targeted measures are essential: enhancing waste management practices in residential areas, enforcing stricter regulations on industrial emissions, preserving green spaces, and implementing traffic management strategies in commercial zones. Additionally, public awareness campaigns should focus on reducing the use of indoor smoking products and promoting cleaner transportation options to address the unique challenges faced by different localities.

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