Abstract

India’s journey towards electric vehicles (EVs) is not just an environmental necessity or an issue but also a strategic move to reduce dependency on fossil fuels, improve air quality, and foster economic growth through sustainable mobility solutions and dynamics. This paper elucidates the current landscape of EV adoption in India, analysing key policies such as the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) and the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP). It discusses the challenges of infrastructure, resource sustainability, and regulatory frameworks, while proposing key recommendations to enhance EV adoption, including financial incentives, localised manufacturing, and strengthened public-private collaborations. Moreover, the paper canvases the role of a circular economy for EVs, focusing on battery recycling and reuse to ensure long-term environmental benefits. As India works towards integrating EVs into public transportation systems and daily life, this paper elucidates the critical role of citizens, civil society, and corporate innovation in achieving a greener, more sustainable future for the nation.

Keywords

Electric Vehicles, India, EV Policies, FAME, Circular Economy, EV Infrastructure, Public Transportation, Policy Recommendations, Green Mobility.

Introduction

The advent of electronic vehicles marks a significant milestone in the journey towards sustainable mobility and environmental preservation. With transport accounting for approximately 23 per cent of global energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, transition to cleaner technologies has been out of compulsion rather than as a choice (International Energy Agency, 2023). EVs are strictly electricity-driven and not fossil-fuel-driven, and this means that they can play a good role in changing climate trends by reducing air pollution while boosting energy independence. In 2023, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), more than 26 million EVs were recorded, exceeding only 1.2 million in 2015. Such an impressive growth curve is attributed largely to improvements in battery technology, decreasing production costs, and supportive government policies.

For effective policies on EVs, all stages—from production to disposal—must necessarily contain sustainability. As Lester Brown, a renowned environmentalist once opined, “The automobile is a creature of the fossil-fuel age. If we are to usher in a sustainable future, we must reinvent it with the power of renewable energy.” The conversion into EVs is indeed not merely a matter of transition of technology but a paradigm shift in governance, policy-making, and social behaviour. This paper explores the details of the EV policy framework and sustainable governance against the background of current global best practices and recommends tailored fits to India’s socio-economic nuances.

The History of Electric Vehicles

The Indian experience with electronic vehicles dates back to the beginning of the decade of 1990, but their uptake was minimal in India due to unavailability of technology capabilities and infrastructure. The FAME scheme, launched in 2015 brought in subsidies for the industry. By 2020, two- and three-wheelers had accounted for more than 80 per cent of the EV market. In 2021, the state policies and fuel price increase had a surge of 168 per cent in the EV sales. Delhi, Maharashtra, and Karnataka had dominated the list with the favourable policies. The second one was the launch of Tata Nexon EV in 2020, which again accounted for 80 per cent of the passenger EV market by 2023. India aims for 30 per cent penetration of EVs by 2030, which is also in line with its target to reduce carbon emissions by 33-35 per cent from 2005 levels under the Paris Agreement.

The Indian EV ecosystem is made possible through joint efforts of government initiatives, private sector investments, and international partnerships. Central government has been a vital force behind revolutionising the ways of going electric. The FAME II scheme was launched in 2019 with a budget of ₹10,000 crore. It is providing incentives for both EVs as well as building up the charging infrastructure. As per the latest data available up to 2023, over seven lakh EVs were supported under FAME II, which has significantly reduced upfront cost to consumers. Furthermore, state governments have also been following suit, drafting policies according to local needs.

Karnataka offers incentives for setting up EV production units to make it as the leading hub for manufacturing EVs. Maharashtra offers a subsidy of up to ₹2.5 lakh for buying EVs besides waiving off road taxes. Indian companies have been ahead in both innovation and manufacturing of EVs. Leading the passenger EV segment is Tata Motors, which itself offers electric cars like Nexon EV and Tigor EV. Companies like Ola Electric, Ather Energy, and Hero Electric have revolutionised urban mobility in terms of affordable and high-performance electric scooters. Ola Electric became India’s largest electric two-wheeler manufacturer in 2022 by producing over one lakh scooters annually. Mahindra Electric and YC Electric Vehicles dominate this three-wheeler market, adding to the convenience of last-mile connectivity through cost-effective, green, and environment-friendly transport in cities. The leading global players have also gained entry into the Indian market with the help of local associates.

Hyundai and MG Motors have launched premium EV models such as Kona Electric and ZS EV for the more affluent section. The success of EVs depends upon a robust charging network. Companies like Tata Power, Fortum India, and smaller startups like ChargeGrid are expanding charging infrastructures all over cities and highways. By 2023, India had installed more than 10,000 public EV charging stations, with plans to scale up this number significantly in the following five years (CEA, 2023). Despite all this, the main challenges remain: the dearth of widespread charging infrastructure; high battery costs; and lack of awareness on the consumer side. The push by the government to manufacture batteries indigenously and other initiatives, such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for EV components, will largely smoothen out these frictions.

The electric two-wheeler segment is expected to grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 40 per cent between 2023 and 2030, with the potential to create 10 million direct and indirect jobs (NITI Aayog, 2023). Introducing renewable energy with charging systems for EVs can further strengthen the sustainability of the sector. India’s transition towards becoming an electric vehicle (EV) nation has been shaped by a dynamic interplay of policy interventions, private sector innovation, and a growing consumer demand. From the humble beginnings of the Reva car to the country’s ambitious goal of achieving 30 per cent EV penetration by 2030, this evolution stands as a strong testament to India’s commitment to sustainable development. With continued investments in technology, infrastructure, and governance, India will hopefully emerge as a global leader in an Recreational Vehicle revolution, paving the way for a greener and cleaner future.

Policy Frameworks for Electronic Vehicles

The robust policy support in countries like Norway, China, and the United States, has proven to be a model policy support for India regarding its quest to shift to electric vehicles.

China, the largest Electric Vehicle (EV) market globally, has prioritised manufacturing and infrastructure development. Policies such as the New Energy Vehicle (NEV) Subsidy Program and mandates requiring automakers to produce a certain percentage of electric vehicles (EVs) have driven innovation and accelerated mass adoption. As of 2023, more than 40 per cent of global EVs were produced in China, with the help of a massive charging infrastructure network of five million charging points, reports International Energy Agency, 2023. The Chinese model illustrates how subsidisation needs to be provided simultaneously with tight production quotas to make the market competitive. Federal tax credits up to $7,500 for the purchase of EVs, together with level incentives of states, have generally propped up demand. California’s Zero-Emission Vehicle Program forces auto manufacturers to sell a certain number of electric or hydrogen-fueled vehicles, making it the front-runner in terms of EV uptake.

Investments in renewable energy-powered charging stations set against this policy background underscore the participation of decentralised policy frameworks that can incubate regional EV ecosystems. Central initiatives such as the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan and FAME Scheme are framed to establish strategies at the state level, and these, on the whole, depict the government’s intentions towards reducing carbon emissions, reducing dependence on fossil fuels, and providing a competitive advantage in global EVs. The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP), launched in 2013, targets achieving annual sales of 6-7 million EVs by 2020, along with the development of EV technologies and charging infrastructure. This policy pays more attention to demand-side incentives, supply-chain improvements, and R&D investments. While the NEMMP renders a strategic direction, the actual implementation has been challenged due to limited awareness, slow infrastructure development, and inadequate funding (Ministry of Heavy Industries, 2013).

Building upon that, FAME II, launched in 2019, has set aside ₹10,000 crores to support the increase in subsidies and charging infrastructure. By 2023, FAME II had supported the deployment of over seven lakh EVs and the installation of 2,877 charging stations across the country (Economic Survey of India, 2023). Despite these achievements, issues like delay in disbursing the subsidy and lack of transparency in the implementation process have limited the programme’s overall potential. At the state level, EV policies have been tailored to suit local priorities. Delhi’s EV Policy 2020 primarily focuses on demand incentives, targeting 25per cent EV penetration in new vehicle registrations by 2024. The policy offers purchase incentives of up to ₹1.5 lakh for electric cars and waives registration and road taxes. Similarly, Maharashtra’s EV Policy 2021 provides subsidies of up to ₹2.5 lakh for electric vehicles, along with incentives for manufacturers to set up EV production facilities.

Karnataka has positioned itself as the “EV capital of India,” becoming the first state to implement a comprehensive electric vehicle policy in 2017. The state’s targeted manufacturing incentives have attracted significant investments in EV and battery technology. By 2023, companies like Ola Electric had established manufacturing units in Karnataka, reinforcing its status as a leading hub for EV production. (NITI Aayog, 2023).

Governance and Sustainability Arena

Sustainable governance refers to a policy and practice framework that integrates economic, social, and environmental objectives in ensuring balanced and sustainable growth. Sustainable governance, in the context of electric vehicle adoption, refers to the implementation of policies and systems that encourage EV acceptance while minimising environmental impact. It underscores long-term planning, stakeholders’ inclusivity, and efficient resource utilisation to ensure that EVs contribute meaningfully to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and dependency on fossil fuels. To the United Nations, sustainable governance calls for marrying the interests of all stakeholders, from governments and private enterprises to civil society, while addressing world challenges such as climate change and resource scarcity. That means the entire vehicle life cycle — from production, to operation, to end-of-life should aim for minimal environmental impact and maximum societal benefits (UNEP, 2023).

The success of EVs largely depends on the charging infrastructure. As of 2023, it had around 10,000 public charging stations, a number that grossly falls short compared with the estimated requirement of over 2.5 million chargers by 2030 (Central Electricity Authority, 2023). Inadequate charging density and reliability create “range anxiety” among the consumers that dampen the adoption of EVs. Combining the integration of EVs with electricity added to challenges in the capacity and stability of the grid. Demand for electricity from an increased number of EVs would cause widespread power outages if the grid was not upgraded to support the load. According to the NITI Aayog (2023), the country has to invest heavily in smart grid technologies and integration of renewable energy sources for mass adoption of EVs with sustainability. The production of EVs, particularly their batteries, poses significant sustainability challenges.

India, which is dependent on imports for these critical minerals, faces significant additional challenges related to resource security and geopolitical dependencies. Recycling and repurposing used EV batteries are required to address these concerns, though the Indian battery recycling market is still at an early stage of growth. A circular economy for used EV batteries needs to be established through effective governance to reduce reliance on raw materials and minimise waste. India’s fragmented regulatory landscape often delays timely and effective policymaking for electric vehicles (EVs). Although there is the central scheme FAME II, it has failed to bring coordination in terms of policy at the state level, keeping everything inconsistent in implementation. For instance, states like Delhi and Maharashtra have advanced EV policies, but others lag due to limited resources and expertise. However, the absence of standardised guidelines for charging infrastructure, battery swapping, and EV manufacturing creates uncertainty for investors and manufacturers. Delays in subsidy disbursements under FAME II have also deterred consumers and businesses from transitioning to EVs (Ministry of Heavy Industries, 2023). Public-private partnerships, or PPPs, are surfacing as a main mechanism for addressing the challenges in governance and sustainability of EVs. Collaboration between both sectors will accelerate infrastructure development, facilitate innovation, and ensure the effectiveness of policy implementation. As public agencies collaborate with private companies, expansion of charging networks across India continues.

For instance, Tata Power, in collaboration with the Indian Oil Corporation, set up EV charging stations across the country at fuel stations by combining public infrastructure with private expertise. Companies like Ather Energy and ChargeGrid are also making a difference in city-area charging stations, finding support in the incentives offered by the government (CEA, 2023). Public institutions and private players will have to come together to develop a circular economy for car batteries. Companies such as Mahindra Electric and Tata Chemicals have been investing in battery recycling technologies, while initiatives under the National Resource Efficiency Policy aim at achieving sustainable resource utilisation for the country. PPPs can facilitate innovation through joint research and development (R&D) efforts. For example, private investment in the production of ACC batteries has been triggered by the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, thereby minimising the need for India to import such products.

International collaborations such as those with Tesla and BYD have further expanded India’s techno-capability in the EV segment. At the heart of the country’s success in transitioning into EVs are governance and sustainability: While EVs certainly are benefitted with crucial environmental advantages, urgent attention needs to be given to challenges associated with infrastructure, resource sustainability, and regulatory framework. Sustainable governance has to take a holistic approach by covering the entire lifecycle from production to disposal of an EV in an equitable manner. Coordinated policies and multi-stakeholder collaboration, in public-private partnerships, can further reinforce efforts in overcoming those challenges. Literature Review associated with the governance framework emphasises the role of coordinated policies and multi-stakeholder collaboration in promoting the adoption of electric vehicles. Sovacool et al. (2020) have argued that environmental, economic, and social dimensions must be integrated into governance strategies to ensure sustainable transitions in mobility. Successful governance of EVs requires harmony between public sector regulations, private sector innovation, and civil society engagement. According to case studies from Europe and Asia on EV policies, Sovacool et al. determine that well-defined governance structures were typical of countries that could achieve high EV adoption rates, such as Norway, “both by offering attractive tax incentives and by investing considerably in infrastructure and involving local governments in implementation.”

Literature Review

Several studies have examined the environmental benefits of electric vehicles (EVs), while also addressing concerns about their impacts across the entire life cycle.” Hawkins et al., (2013) conducted a comprehensive lifecycle comparison of EVs with conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles focusing on greenhouse gas emissions. Their results indicate that EVs emit drastically fewer emissions during usage, but the manufacturing emissions of batteries, mainly lithium-ion batteries, can negate these benefits. From this foundation, researchers such as Gaines (2021) have explored avenues to reduce the environmental footprint of the batteries used in EVs, like recycling and second life. For Gaines, this is crucial to prevent overdependence on raw materials and to generate waste well. For India, this highlights the fact that it must give top priority to policies and investments in battery recycling technologies to make the transition towards EVs sustainably environmental. Charging infrastructure is currently one of the biggest factors affecting the adoption of EVs. Wang et al. (2019) studied the effect of charging infrastructure on the increase of growth of the EV market in China, and observed that a direct correlation exists between the density of charging stations and the level of willingness to buy EVs. It was shown that urban centers with well-developed charging networks grew faster than rural areas.

Sharma et al., (2023) further examined state-level EV policies, noting a significant difference in their implementation. States like Delhi and Maharashtra, which offered comprehensive incentives and infrastructure support, outperformed others in EV adoption. The authors argue that the lack of a uniform national policy framework creates disparities and hinders the overall growth of the EV market. Their recommendations include establishing standardised guidelines for charging infrastructure, streamlining subsidy processes, and encouraging inter-state collaborations to address regional disparities. The social and economic implications of adopting EVs have also been exhaustively considered in academic literature. Banerjee and Dutta (2021) emphasized the potential for jobs in manufacturing, battery production, and maintenance arising due to the adoption of EVs. According to an estimate by them, the gradual transition to EVs can create jobs worth up to 10 million by 2030 if the government is ready to invest in skill building and local manufacturing.

On the social side, Narayan et al., (2022) have highlighted the importance of inclusive EV policy that responds to the needs of the lower strata of society. They concluded that high upfront costs and little access to charging infrastructure in rural areas proved to be disincentives for the use of EVs by economically weaker sections. They have suggested targeted subsidies, low-cost financing options, and awareness campaigns so that the benefits of EVs are equitably distributed across society. The literature underlines that, for EVs, governance and sustainability are not independent but interdependent elements necessary to understand the requirement of a multi-dimensional approach that assimilates environmental, social, and economic objectives. Though, in India, policies have been designed and public-private partnerships promoted at a significant level, it is necessary to address infrastructure deficits, resource sustainability, and regulatory inefficiencies. By availing itself of global best practices and adapting them to the particular localities, India can build a sustainable and inclusive EV ecosystem which supports its broader goals of economic growth and environmental preservation. Key Analysis of Reports on Governance and Sustainability; International Energy Agency (IEA): Global EV Outlook 2023 by the International Energy Agency gives an overview of global EV adoption trends, policy frameworks, and sustainability challenges. According to the report, EV sales had reached more than 14 million units in 2022, reaching 14 per cent of all new vehicle sales worldwide, led by China, Europe, and the United States.

The most important insight here is that robust governance structures enable these areas to encourage consumers and manufacturers with integrated policies that ensure economic and environmental advantages.

For India, in particular, the report foresees it becoming as a global hotbed for the electric vehicle sector because of its rising demand and manufacturing capacity. It flags, however several challenges such as inadequate charging infrastructure, reliance on imported critical minerals, and a fragmented regulatory landscape. The IEA suggests that India put emphasis on the implementation of integration of renewable energy, public-private partnerships, and battery recycling as it targets global sustainability directions.

NITI Aayog: India’s Green Mobility Report (2023)

The NITI Aayog, in its India’s Green Mobility Report, develops the Indian road map towards attaining its EV goals while pointing towards necessary sustainable governance frameworks. The report further states that 30 per cent of its private vehicles, 70 per cent of commercial vehicles, and 80 per cent of two- and three-wheelers are proposed to be electric by 2030. These are lofty targets that are supported by policies such as FAME II and the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) battery manufacturing. It concludes on crucial gaps in India’s EV ecosystem, be it lack of charging infrastructure in tier-2 and tier-3 cities, slow implementation of state-level policies, or inadequate investment in R&D for battery technology. These recommendations have favoured a region-specific approach to governance on the EV, with states coming together for the development of infrastructure and sharing best practices. The report further emphasises on the need for integration of renewable energy into EV charging systems, indicating that this might reduce CO₂ emissions by as much as 20 per cent in 2030.

Economic Survey of India (2023)

The Economic Survey of India (2023) dedicates a section to electric mobility, emphasising its potential to advance the nation’s climate goals and energy security objectives. The survey notes that EV penetration in India remains low, with only 1.3 million EVs sold in 2022, compared to 14 million globally. It attributes this to high upfront costs, limited charging infrastructure, and delayed implementation of Central and state policies.

The survey applauds the FAME II scheme for incentivising EV adoption and manufacturing but points out that disbursement delays and bureaucratic hurdles have limited its impact.

It also highlights the success of state-level policies, particularly in Delhi and Maharashtra, where comprehensive incentives and infrastructure support have significantly boosted the higher adoption of EVs.

Recommendations for Advancing EV Governance and Sustainability in India

To spur greater adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and improve sustainability, India must fine-tune and extend its policy framework. Although the Indian government introduced initiatives such as FAME and the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan, (NEMMP), much is required to be done to integrate both schemes in a more viable manner. There are several policy improvements that can be considered. Among those, the enhancement of financial incentives is one major improvement to the extent that the value added will now be higher under the scheme.

The subsidy under FAME II has helped cut the initial cost for electric vehicles. However, the main challenges have been delays in disbursement of subsidies and insufficient coverage across EV categories.

The Indian government should simplify the process of the subsidies disbursed to the customers, ensure punctual payment, and encourage more categories with incentives, including incentives for two-wheelers and commercial vehicles, which constitute the lion’s share of India’s vehicle fleet. Critical parts sucha as Battery production of the battery should be incentivised locally. India can develop a strong base for EV manufacturing by engaging with domestic industries and their workforce. The government should incentivise local battery, electric motor, and charging equipment manufacturing. This would not only create jobs but also help in reducing the costs associated with EVs. Special attention needs to be laid on R&D in battery technology, especially on improving energy density, decreasing cost, and increasing the life cycle of batteries. Public funding for R&D may be boosted by private sector participation through tax breaks or matching funds for innovation.

There is a need for the government to encourage the development of advanced recycling facilities, coupled with a legislation to encourage the safe collection, disposal, and recycling of used EV batteries. Developing this infrastructure between the private and public sectors will be crucial in building an efficient collection and processing system for batteries; this alternative also includes battery reuse and second-life applications. For example, spent EV batteries are repurposed for stationary energy storage, contributing towards the stability of grids along with renewable sources. Nevertheless, public awareness campaigns can motivate consumers to recycle old batteries at collection points with the aim of recycling them safely and minimising negative impacts on the environment. Integration of battery recycling and second-life applications would offer more benefits that reduce the demand for new raw materials while creating economic opportunities such as battery refurbishment and materials recovery. The adoption of EVs by private customers is important for reducing carbon emissions and pollution.. asas the buses auto-rickshaws, and taxis are major contributors to pollution in most Indian cities, significantly affecting local air quality and contributing to national greenhouse gas emissions.

Public transport vehicles converted to electric models can greatly reduce the pollution levels, benefitting the environment as well as human health. This, however, requires coordinated planning, investment, and policy reforms. The Government will have to incentivise the electrification of public transport systems by offering incentives for buying and operating electric buses, taxis, and auto-rickshaws. PPPs may also help increase the size of EV fleets in urban centres. Cities like Delhi and Mumbai can achieve large-scale adoption of electric buses by offering incentives that cover both the cost of the buses and the development of charging infrastructure. The main challenge is that the upfront cost of these electric buses is too expensive for many state transport authorities. In this regard, the government should offer long-term finance and low-interest loans to make these vehicles more affordable. Additionally, collaborations with education institutions for supporting research in sustainable transportation can establish an innovative and problem-solving environment.

Influencing consumer behaviour towards responsible decision- making, such as shared electric mobility solutions or reduced use of personal vehicles, can further enhance a culture of sustainability. A circular economy for EVs, significantly through improved recycling and battery reuse structures, will ensure that the environmental benefits from electric mobility are not diminished by unsustainable practices. It will also help in reducing emissions, cleaning up the air, and easing traffic congestion by strengthening public transportation systems and integrating EVs into urban mobility networks. The role of citizens and civil society is huge in developing a culture of sustainability. With the correct combination of policy support, development of infrastructure, and active public engagement, India can establish a sustainable EV ecosystem that will drive the country towards a greener and cleaner future.

Case Studies Analysis

Some of the specific examples highlighting the experiences of individuals, companies, and government initiatives in adopting and promoting EVs in India are given below.

These cases are backed by actual reports, press releases, and market research—Electric Vehicles Policy and its adoption in Delhi–Delhi, the world’s most polluted city, is now at the forefront of India’s campaign for electric vehicles. In 2020, the Delhi government launched an ambitious EV policy aimed at accelerating the adoption of electric mobility in the city.The policy offers significant incentives, with a subsidy of up to ₹30,000 on electric two-wheelers and up to ₹1.5 lakh on electric cars, besides rebates on road tax and registration fees. Anjali, a middle-class professional in Delhi, grabbed the opportunity presented by the Delhi EV Policy in 2021 when she brought home an electric scooter. She was motivated by the financial incentives as well as the government’s push to reduce pollution. Anjali says that the savings on fuel costs---from petrol to electricity---and the overall lower maintenance costs of the electric scooter were big motivators. On the infrastructure front, she is lucky to have a charging point at her home, so it is a convenient option for her. However, she mentioned that public charging infrastructure remains underdeveloped in most parts of the city, especially in congested areas. This has the potential to overcome a significant challenge as the Delhi government plans to install over 200,000 charging stations by 2025.

Maharashtra’s EV Fleet Adoption – Vijay’s Case from the Fleet Owner’s Perspective

Maharashtra, one of the biggest states in India and known to be the most industrialised, rolled out its EV policy in 2021 with a target of achieving 10 per cent EV penetration in vehicle sales by 2025. This policy covers all kinds of incentives for consumers and businesses — subsidies for electric vehicle purchase, infra support for the installation of charging stations, among others. Vijay, an auto-rickshaw fleet operator in Pune, has chosen to convert a few of his fleet to electric vehicles. He operates 20 rickshaws and has replaced three with electric versions. The trigger for him was when the state government announced EV subsidies along with long-term fuel savings. These electric rickshaws operate with lesser costs compared to the normal rickshaws as they do not consume expensive fuel and have fewer moving parts that require maintenance. In addition, Vijay’s case illustrates the problems of the adaptation process of EV in fleet operations. The main problem was the absence of fast-charging infrastructure in parts of Pune. It takes more time than refueling a traditional rickshaw to charge an electric rickshaw, which translates into downtime between passenger trips. Still, Vijay is upbeat about the future of EVs, mainly since the Pune Municipal Corporation is planning to roll out more public charging stations in the city as part of the Maharashtra EV policy. In the short run, his case will make a case for developing reliable charging infrastructure to make the adoption of EVs possible for fleet operators.

Bengaluru’s Electric Vehicle Adoption by Ola Electric:

Ride-Hailing Services

Ola Electric is also one of the major players in the electric vehicle revolution in India. Ola Electric was launched in 2021 as an electric scooter called the Ola S1. It became an instant hit when it arrived in the market due to its competitive price and modern features. In Ola’s strategy, electrification of the ride-hailing fleet has been included. Ravi Kumar is a case from Bengaluru who was an Ola driver. These ride-hailing services can benefit much from electric mobility, and in this case, Ravi had switched to an electric scooter after incentives were offered, along with access to the Ola Electric network of charging stations.

He observed that his daily running cost was significantly reduced as compared to his earlier petrol scooter. The maintenance cost and the savings on fuel also helped save his earnings, and he loved the green impact of driving a car in a city known so much for pollution. But Ravi says the critical cost of entry for electric scooters remains a significant barrier for most drivers, especially the ones who get paid daily. He suggests the government should provide more subsidies to bring electric two-wheelers upto the reach of the low-income groups, constituting the large share of the ride-hailing market.

Conclusion

India holds significant potential for the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) as a strategic response to the country’s pressing environmental, economic, and energy security challenges. A robust regulatory framework is very much needed to support the wide-scale adoption of electric vehicles. In India, for instance, the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme has played a significant role in subsidising EVs and developing charging networks. Similarly, in the European Union, the Green Deal emphasises clean energy transitions and focuses on expanding the support systems for EVs. The United States, for example, has set aside billions of dollars in its National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure (NEVI) program to develop charging stations along highways to make long-distance travel easy for users of electric vehicles. Such initiatives go to show that integrated policies are essential in filling the gap for charging infrastructure and the overall adoption of electric vehicles globally.

Temporal Analysis of Progress in EV Usage

Electric vehicle adoption has made great strides over the last two decades. It was in the early 2010s that EV adoption was slowly picking up with global registrations barely crossing 200,000 units. Advances in technology, declining battery costs, and policy support paved the way for exponential growth. Global sales of more than 1.3 million units in 2015 were due to the incentives and public awareness created. In the post-2020 period, the pace again to reach 10 million globally, thanks to climate commitments, mass production, and companies such as Tesla and BYD. By 2023, it had registered over 26 million EVs, making it evident that regulatory frameworks and sustainable energy policies can change the transportation sectors.

In order to make this transition successful, a multi-pronged approach could be very supportive, including enhanced policy incentives, localised manufacturing, and continued investment in research and development. Strengthening of financial incentives, expansion of public charging infrastructure, promotion of local manufacturing of EV components, reduction of costs, and improved access to consumers—all these are important suggestions. In addition, a circular economy for EVs that aims at recycling and reuse of materials, such as batteries, can solve the environmental concerns and ensure resource sustainability. Strengthening public transportation systems, so as to integrate electric buses and shared mobility solutions, will further reduce emissions and make EVs a viable option for urban commuters. The role of citizens and civil society cannot be overlooked: public awareness campaigns coupled with active participation of the individuals, local community, and environmental organisations will positively foster a culture of sustainable mobility.

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