Collaborative Governance: The Indian Experience

Abstract

This paper examines various initiatives taken by Government of India to promote collaborative governance in various sectors. With increasing needs and aspirations of the community for public services and the limited capacity of government to provide the same, the involvement of various stakeholders to deliver these services becomes important and necessity.   Strengthening of democratization raises the need to empower the community and stakeholders outside the government bureaucracy to deliver public services. When service aspirations become high, community involvement in public service delivery is no longer just necessary but has become crucial. Government is no longer an autonomous and authoritative actor in governance. In contrast, the public sector is now considered as dependent on the private sector in several different ways. In India the democratisation of development has taken place since long. In recent past after 1992 economic reforms the private sector has come to play a major role in infrastructure development like roads, ports, railways and civil aviation. In the social sectors like education, health and delivery of services various stakeholders are being involved to support the governments reach in provision of better services to the citizens. The PPP model that India adopted to build its infrastructure could be a lesson for other countries to adopt. The object has been to provide accessibility, reliability and citizen friendly processes. The PPP model can bring opportunities for investment, operating efficiency and modern and clean technology. Initiatives like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan had made significant strides in various areas of development related to cleanliness and sanitation in India. The campaign encourages active participation from citizens, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders to collectively work towards achieving the goals of the campaign. One of the primary goals of the campaign was to eliminate open defecation and ensure that every household has access to safe and clean toilets. With a view to enhance enrolment, retention and attendance in schools and simultaneously improving nutritional levels among children, the National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE) has been introduced with community participation. The programme involves self-help groups and also encourages the civil society organizations to manage the mid-day meals scheme. 

Introduction 

Governance is defined as all the processes of governing, the institutions, processes and practices through which issues of common concern are decided upon and regulated. O'Leary, Bingham, and Gerard  define governance as the "means to steer the process that influences decisions and actions within the private, public, and civic sectors. In the present times, Governments are extensively utilizing collaborative, inter-organizational approaches to the delivery of public services. This shift in governance structure necessitates government instrumentalities to work within network with other systems and structures for the delivery of public services. The governance is changing from hierarchical or command-and-control mechanisms to public services that are jointly produced by multiple agencies -government, for-profit and non-profit agencies as no one organization can provide all of the services that are needed to fulfil the needs of the community. As a result, the boundaries delineating each level of government's responsibility, authority, and activity in providing services have become blurred.

Collaborative Governance –Meaning and Concept 

Collaborate means to work together with someone in order to produce or achieve something. It basically implies various stakeholders working in conjunction, which may include individuals, groups or organisations, cooperating in some endeavour to achieve certain beneficial outcomes. Kirk Emerson, Tina Nabatchi and Stephen Balogh define collaborative governance broadly as the processes and structures of public policy decision making and management that engage people constructively across the boundaries of public agencies, levels of government, and/or the public, private and civic spheres in order to carry out a public purpose that could not otherwise be accomplished. Collaboration was neither the essence of the chosen system of government, nor was a priority of early governments. Therefore, the attempts at collaboration would have to work against the structural logic of federalism to succeed, and there would always remain a structural tension in such endeavours. It was only in the 1980s and 1990s, with liberalisation privatisation and globalisation that governments’ world over began to use competition and forms of collaboration with market players to deliver their core business activities. With this began realisation by Governments across the globe that they could improve delivery methods only by engaging in collaboration and also need to specify outputs or results, control prices and select and monitor external providers. 21st century saw the beginning of governments becoming interested in higher levels of collaboration and joint partnerships. Governments began to redefine themselves as ‘facilitators’. Governments relied on collaboration to improve policy formulation, improve implementation and provide more integrated services. 

Need for and Importance of Collaborative Governance

With increasing needs and aspirations of the community for public services and the limited capacity of government to provide services, the involvement of various stakeholders to deliver these services becomes important and necessity. Dwiyanto (2012) has stated that the strengthening of democratization raises the need to empower the community and stakeholders outside the government bureaucracy to deliver public services. When service aspirations become high, community involvement in public service delivery is no longer just necessary but has become crucial. Government is no longer an autonomous and authoritative actor in governance. In contrast, the public sector is now considered as dependent on the private sector in several different ways. Today both public and private actors are considered as major pillars for development and implementation of public policy.

According to the OECD (2001), good governance has eight main characteristics- participation, consensus-oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, fair and inclusive, and following the rule of law. Participation of citizens through active involvement in decision-making and governance is an essential value to achieve goal of good governance. Effective participation helps fulfil the expectations that citizens want to achieve to  improve the quality of public services, help the policy implementation process, enhance transparency and accountability, thereby increase public trust in government, foster an information society, create the possibility of developing new partnerships between government and society and finally result in an informed public. Thus participation is a crucial stage in the collaboration process leading to effective partnerships between the government and the community. The community, along with the private sector, has the power to compete with the government in the decision-making process and implementation of programmes/activities. 

Collaboration was not framed within the mind-set of bureaucracy but was beyond bureaucracy. Collaboration was part of next wave of public-sector reforms after managerialism, ‘new public management’ and outsourcing and market delivery. Collaborative governance helps policymakers to better understand and target problems and also attain stakeholders’ acceptance of decisions. It also infuses new perspectives on problems and offers new opportunities to implement strategies for change. To non-state actors, it provides an opportunity to better understand the thinking and practices of government and to exert some influence on policy formulation and implementation. Mutual sharing and learning are major hallmarks of collaborative practices. However, it may sometimes blur the lines of accountability and transparency if things go wrong and may raise questions about who is responsible for what and who is ultimately accountable for decisions taken, if problems emerge or if things go wrong. Government at every level can and should engage the private sector to overcome challenges and achieve public goals more effectively. The key is to carefully and strategically engage companies and NGOs in ways that simultaneously motivate and empower them to create public value.

Collaboration Framework

From hierarchical layers to a team-based structure collaboration has different context. Nearly every company needs to reduce the hierarchical layers that have accumulated in their organizations over time and channel more work to teams. Government can’t be an exception. The benefits of doing so are manifold. When teams include people who are on the front lines, the information flow is both faster and more accurate; with this increased speed comes greater flexibility to respond to customer and market changes. The improved flow of information also creates transparency that removes a lot of organizational politics and encourages collaboration.

Public Private Partnership

Public Private Partnership was a marriage of innovation of private sector and inclusion centricity of public sector that rest on risk allocation. We must reimagine PPP as “partnership for public purpose to use social capital plus digital capital to build human capital. Demographic dividend of youth for nation building and ageing population that needs a shift from welfarism to care economy, participation of private sector and third sector of not-for-profit sector can be a silver bullet.

Collaborative Governance initiatives in India

Private Sector Participation in Public Services

The concept of welfare state is ingrained in Indian Constitution and makes the State duty bound to make these services available to all its citizens. After the adoption of the Constitution, the government chose to discharge this responsibility itself and engaged in by making these services available through state directed, state driven and publicly financed facilities. These services were delivered within the limits of its financial capacity and made available with varying degree of efficiency, adequacy, and access and user satisfaction to different social groups. This continued till 1980s and under the impact of Liberalization, privatisation and globalisation to help Government reduce the fiscal deficit, attract private investment particularly foreign investment, and improve productivity and efficiency in various economic activities. The government has transferred their responsibility in part or full to the private sector.

In Indian economy this private sector participation has taken various forms. These entail financing of public services with recovery of cost , outsourcing of functions by public sector agencies to private suppliers, reimbursement from public funds of services rendered by private service provider, exposing public sector producers to compete with the private sector, incremental withdrawal of public services and thereby, forcing users to access privately funded services, transfer of management of public funded service provider institutions to private sector agencies, sharing responsibility of implementation of public funded programmes with the private sector creating Private sector funded facilities in the premises of public institutions etc with a view to improving productivity and efficiency. 

PPP (Public Private Partnership) in Development Projects

Public utility projects such as road, sanitation, water supply, health care, etc. have been traditionally funded out of budgetary allocation. Though there has been incremental addition to the budgetary support since independence, budgetary provisions towards development and upkeep of these services have remained grossly inadequate over the years.   Since the beginning of the last decade, as a result of economic reforms, a paradigm shift in funding of such projects has been taking place. Steps have been taken to encourage private investment in public utility projects. The intention is to help develop a better infrastructure by involving the private sector, where the Government plays the role of a facilitator and sets the regulatory and legal frameworks in place. The private sector, on its part, chips in with the financial, technical and managerial support for such infrastructure projects. Such projects are known as Public Private Partnership (PPP) Projects. In PPP terminology, the private partner implementing the project is known as Concessionaire.

Private Sector involvement in Infrastructure Projects 

Traditionally, infrastructure projects have been considered the responsibility of the government. Although public investment continues to account for a larger share in infrastructure financing; but due to financial constraints, it has decelerated since the past few years and the government is roping in private sector. Efforts have been made by the Government of India to step-up investment in infrastructure, and particularly to catalyze greater private investment. Moreover, GoI is making efforts to encourage private investments in infrastructure projects. As a result, the share of the private sector in infrastructure financing gradually increased from a mere 25.1% in FY05 to 32.7% in FY10 (E) and is expected to increase further to 45.2% in FY20. The government is making efforts to create a favourable climate by putting laws into place that improve the political and legal landscape, increasing public sector efficiency, building a strong institutional structure, expediting clearance procedures, and offering financial support.

Private Sector Participation in road construction 

Historically, the government oversaw, regulated, and provided all funding for road development. The government alone was in charge of carrying out the initiatives, and this responsibility was contingent on the government's budgetary resources. Currently, in order to address the shortcomings, it will need Rs. 1,65,000 cr to prepare the Tenth Plan just for National Highways. 

Due to a lack of funding, the government began searching for creative and alternative sources of funding that may offer the necessary long-term support for funding road projects. In June 1995, the National Highways Act (NH Act) 1956 was revised to let private individuals to invest in NH projects, levy and collect fees from users and has the authority to control traffic on certain roads in accordance with the Motor Vehicle Act of 1988. In addition, the government has established a number of incentives to entice foreign direct investment and involvement from the private sector. The government was to pay for the project feasibility investigation, land for the right of way and side amenities, utility shifting, and environmental clearances as part of a public-private partnership. Red tape was eliminated and the regulations were loosened. Thus, foreign direct investment in the road industry was permitted up to 100%, in addition to the 40% subsidy and the 100% tax exemption for any ten years in a row following the project's completion. The ability to keep toll, declare the road industry an industry, import high-capacity, contemporary road building equipment duty-free, and ease external commercial borrowing regulations were all permitted. Although there are many different types of public-private partnerships, Build Operate and Transfer (BOT) Toll basis, Build Operate and Transfer (BOT) Annuity basis, and Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) basis are the common forms that are popular in India and have been used for the development of National Highways.

This Involvement of the private sector in road construction projects has led to greater efficiency, more flexible procurement and decision-making procedures and has sped up implementation efforts. The programme envisages an investment of Rs.1,72,000 crore in the road projects.

Private Sector Participation in Ports

The PPP model has played a vital role in developing India’s port sector. The port privatization programme was flagged off in India in 1997. Since 3 July 1997, when the first PPP concession was signed at Jawaharlal Nehru Port Authority to develop a container terminal, the 12 major ports owned by the Union government, have witnessed 32 such partnerships. With the opening-up of the Indian economy in the 1990’s, the Union government allowed private sector participation in major ports to infuse funds, induct technology, improve management practices, create additional capacity, and enhance efficiency. With that the sector has witnessed new investments including foreign investments. Presently, there are 32 PPP projects working successfully in the major ports and presently PPP accounts for nearly 90% of the new investment in Berth/Terminal infrastructure.

The government is working harder than ever to establish the favourable conditions required to fortify both current and upcoming PPPs. This is being accomplished through enacting laws that improve the political and legal landscape, constructing strong institutional frameworks, expediting clearance procedures, and improving public sector efficiency. Involving private companies with the main ports boosts revenue while simultaneously enhancing the port industry's efficiency. Additionally, it increases the employment and training prospects for workers, boosts the market share of Indian businesses abroad, and creates job chances.

The Central Government has the authority to create new Major Ports and to oversee the management of existing Major Ports. The responsibility for establishing and managing non-major ports lies with the individual state governments. The Boards of the individual Major Ports are empowered to establish rules and regulations to construct and deliver buildings and such other infrastructure in the Major Port's interest, in accordance with the terms of the Major Port Authorities, Act, 2021. Major Ports are expanding their capacity and operating efficiency by building berths, terminals, oil docks, etc. while keeping in mind future requirements. 

For the purpose of building major ports' berths, terminals, oil jetties, etc., the Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways has determined 81 Public Private Partnership (PPP) Projects, valued at Rs. 42,300 Crore, through the fiscal year 2024–2025. Major Ports in India have a capacity of 1598 MTPA as of March 2022; in the fiscal year 2021–2022, they handled 720 MT of traffic. 

PPP Initiatives in Indian Railway to boost Infrastructure

Up until 2030, Indian Railways is expected to require capital investment of about Rs 50 lakh crore for rolling stock introduction, expansion of the network and capacity augmentation, and other modernization projects that will enable better travellers and freight service delivery and increase its modal share in transportation. In order to close the capital finance gap, incorporate contemporary technologies, and boost productivity, a few projects will employ the Public Private Partnership (PPP) model.

One of the PPP ideas is to ask partners to invest in and install contemporary rakes on a few routes so that passengers may receive first-rate services. In order to give passengers top-notch services, the Ministry of Railways (MoR) is accepting applications for funding and the introduction of contemporary rakes over a few routes via Public Private Partnerships (PPPs). In light of this, MOR released twelve Requests for Qualification (RFQs) on July 1st, 2020, for the PPP-based Design, Build, Finance, and Operate (or "DBFO") passenger train operation spanning around 109 origin-destination pairings (split into twelve clusters). The routes are dispersed over several states, encompassing the whole Indian Railway network and extending beyond state borders. In all such circumstances, however, Indian Railways bears the obligation for train management and safety certification. Additionally, it has been determined that Indian Railways will supply the personnel (drivers and guards) needed to operate trains under the PPP system. 

Models for Private Participation in Rail-Connectivity and Capacity Augmentation Projects

Indian Railways often operate in the central segment of the economy. The IR network needs a significant amount of investment to grow, modernize, and enhance.  The Ministry of Railways hopes to draw in private funding to expedite the building of permanent rail infrastructure.  It has created PPP financing structures for both new projects and those on its current project shelf in order to achieve this.  These models are general ones.  Case-by-case decisions will be made about the particular issues.  The Ministry of Railways will either provide direct approval or hold competitive bidding to award the concession, depending on the type of private investment.

At either end of the rail transportation chain, this approach can be used for first- and last-mile connectivity projects that connect ports, mines, logistics parks, or sizable clusters of companies that handle goods flow for several consignors or consignees. Passenger train operations are unaffected by it and it can be used for any type of goods traffic transit. These railroads will be used for public freight and passenger transit under the "common carrier" model.  It is a non-government railway project that will be established on private land to provide train connectivity. The railway ministry has announced that it will be putting 16 stations up for bid under the public-private partnership (PPP) framework. These train stations will be renovated to provide better accessibility and basic amenities for travellers. This is on top of the 1253 train stations that the Adarsh Station Scheme has designated for building.

Aviation Infrastructure in India-Existing Position

Since 2006, India's civil aviation sector has experienced some of the fastest growth of any sector in the nation. After the United States and China, India has the third-largest domestic airline market globally. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) projects that, by 2030, India would surpass both China and the United States as the third-largest air passenger market globally. This prediction is based on the next ten years. The nation has 464 airports and airstrips. Of them, 125 airports are owned and operated by the AAI. It consists of 26 civil enclaves at military airstrips and 11 international airports. There are 76 AAI domestic (operational) airports, including 21 domestic (operational) civil enclaves, and 10 AAI customs airports, including 4 customs civil enclaves. Approximately 100 airports or aerodromes are used for routine commercial passenger travel. The airports that service the metropolitan areas of New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Kochi, and Hyderabad are run either privately or through joint ventures.

Involvement of Citizens in Governance Process

The current Indian government seems to be taking private citizens into confidence on this path. The campaign appears to have been successful a year after Prime Minister Narendra Modi urged wealthy Indians to stop receiving their cooking gas (LPG) subsidy. Over 10 million people replied to the "Giveitup” campaign. It has crossed 10 million, helping the government save US $ 800 million in subsidies.

This year’s State (Padma) awards for citizen contribution are another example of the government reaching out to genuine change agents. Earlier, well off intellectuals who lobbied the right politicians & bureaucrats made it to the list. This year we have rank outsiders like the nonagenarian Bhakti Yadav, popularly known as “Doctor Dadi”. She has assisted in the delivery of thousands of infants throughout the course of her 68 years of free patient care. In addition to Bipin Ganatra from West Bengal, Daripalli Ramaiah, commonly known as "The Tree Man," from Telangana has also been nominated for a Padma Shri award. A regular guy named Ramaiah has devoted his life to cultivating over 10 million trees in India to promote environmental sustainability. He finds a barren location, so he takes some seeds out of his pocket and plants them there. With the exception of fire department officials, Ganatra, a volunteer fire fighter, has visited nearly every site of a fire in Kolkata during the past 40 years.

Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

"Swachh Bharat" or "Swachh Bharat Abhiyan" is a national cleanliness campaign launched by the Government of India on October 2, 2014. The campaign aims to achieve the vision of a clean and hygienic India by promoting cleanliness and proper sanitation practices across the country. Since its launch, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has seen significant progress in several areas. Millions of toilets have been constructed, and many villages and cities have been declared Open Defecation Free (ODF). The campaign has also led to increased awareness and consciousness about cleanliness and sanitation practices. To sustain the momentum and achieve its goals, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan continues to be a priority initiative of the Indian government. It reflects a broader vision of transforming India into a cleaner and healthier nation, ultimately improving the quality of life for all its citizens.

Key objectives of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan are as follows

• Open Defecation Free (ODF) India: One of the primary goals of the campaign is to eliminate open defecation and ensure that every household has access to safe and clean toilets. This is essential to improve public health and prevent diseases caused by poor sanitation.

• Cleanliness and Solid Waste Management: The campaign focuses on promoting cleanliness in public places, such as streets, parks, and tourist spots. It also encourages proper waste management and recycling to reduce the burden on landfills.

• Behavioral Change: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan aims to bring about a behavioral change among citizens towards maintaining cleanliness and hygiene. It emphasizes the responsibility of every individual in keeping their surroundings clean.

• Awareness and Education: The campaign works on spreading awareness about the importance of sanitation, hygiene, and environmental cleanliness through various media channels, educational institutions, and community engagement.

• Rural and Urban Focus: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan addresses sanitation issues in both rural and urban areas of India. It aims to make all villages and cities clean and sustainable.

• Public Participation: The campaign encourages active participation from citizens, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders to collectively work towards achieving the goals of the campaign.

Swachh Bharat Development: Propose Changes in Sanitation and Cleanliness

Swachh Bharat Abhiyan had made significant strides in various areas of development related to cleanliness and sanitation in India. However, it's essential to note that the situation might have evolved Here are some key areas of development and achievements under Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has been a significant step towards addressing cleanliness and sanitation issues in India, contributing to the nation's development and the well-being of its citizens. However, sustained efforts and continued focus are necessary to ensure that the progress made is maintained and further enhanced. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has made significant progress in rural India since its launch. The campaign has focused on improving sanitation, hygiene, and cleanliness in rural areas, with particular emphasis on eliminating open defecation and promoting proper waste management. 

Key developments under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

Construction of Toilets: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has focused on constructing toilets in both rural and urban areas to eliminate open defecation. As a result, millions of individual household toilets and community and public toilets have been built across the country.

Open Defecation Free (ODF) Status: A considerable number of villages and cities were declared Open Defecation Free (ODF) under the campaign. ODF status indicates that all households in a village or city have access to toilets and no longer practice open defecation. One of the most significant achievements of the campaign in rural areas has been the declaration of thousands of villages as Open Defecation Free. The ODF status means that every household in these villages has access to a toilet, and open defecation practices have been eliminated.

Behavior Change: The campaign emphasized the need for behavioral change among citizens to maintain cleanliness and proper sanitation practices. Various awareness programs, community engagements, and behavior change campaigns were conducted to instill a sense of responsibility for cleanliness among the public.

Swachh Survekshan: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan introduced the Swachh Survekshan, an annual cleanliness survey to assess the cleanliness and sanitation levels of cities and towns across India. The survey aimed to encourage competition among cities to improve their cleanliness standards.

Waste Management: Efforts were made to promote proper waste management practices and recycling to reduce the burden on landfills. Initiatives for waste segregation, composting, and promoting eco-friendly practices were undertaken. The campaign has also emphasized proper waste management in rural areas. Efforts have been made to raise awareness about waste segregation, composting, and recycling to reduce the burden on landfills.

Cleanliness Drives and Initiatives: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has encouraged the participation of local communities in cleanliness drives and initiatives. Villagers and local organizations have been involved in organizing cleanliness events and keeping public places clean. Community Toilets: In areas where individual household toilets were not feasible, community toilets have been constructed to cater to the sanitation needs of the community members.

School Sanitation: The campaign also focused on improving sanitation facilities in schools, ensuring that students have access to clean and hygienic toilets and washrooms.

Impact on Public Health: By reducing open defecation and promoting better sanitation practices, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan aimed to have a positive impact on public health, reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases and improving overall health outcomes.

Information and Awareness Campaigns: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has conducted extensive information and awareness campaigns in rural areas to educate people about the importance of sanitation, hygiene, and the ill-effects of open defecation. These campaigns aimed to bring about behavioral change and promote the use of toilets.

Cleanliness Drives and Initiatives: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has encouraged the participation of local communities in cleanliness drives and initiatives. Villagers and local organizations have been involved in organizing cleanliness events and keeping public places clean.

Incentives and Recognition: The government has incentivized the achievement of ODF status and active participation in the campaign. Panchayats (local self-governing bodies) that successfully achieved ODF status have been recognized and rewarded.

Sanitation Workers: The campaign has also brought attention to the important role of sanitation workers in maintaining cleanliness and hygiene. Efforts have been made to improve the working conditions and social status of sanitation workers in rural areas.

Digital India

"Digital India" is an ambitious initiative launched by the Government of India. The program was officially launched on July 1, 2015, with the vision of transforming India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy. The Digital India initiative aims to leverage technology to bridge the digital divide, improve governance, enhance citizen services, and foster economic growth and development. Digital India has seen significant progress since its launch, with increased internet penetration, the growth of e-governance services, and a surge in digital payments and transactions. The program has played a crucial role in transforming the way citizens interact with the government and access services, making governance more transparent, efficient, and accessible to all.

Key components and objectives of the Digital India program include

Broadband Connectivity: The initiative aims to expand the reach of high-speed internet and broadband connectivity to every corner of the country, including remote and rural areas. This is achieved through the deployment of the National Optical Fiber Network (NOFN) and BharatNet projects. Under the Modi government, the "Digital India" initiative has been a key focus area, with an emphasis on expanding broadband connectivity and digital infrastructure across the country. The aim is to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy. Several initiatives have been launched and significant progress has been made in improving broadband connectivity during the Modi government's tenure. Here are some key aspects of the broadband connectivity under the Digital India initiative:

BharatNet Project: The BharatNet project is one of the flagship initiatives under Digital India. It aims to connect over 250,000 village panchayats (local administrative units) across the country with high-speed broadband internet. The project involves the laying of optical fiber cables and establishing broadband infrastructure in rural areas to bridge the digital divide. BharatNet, one of the biggest rural telecom projects in the world, implemented in a phased manner to all Gram Panchayats (approximately 2.5 lakh) in the country for providing non-discriminatory access to broadband connectivity to all the telecom service providers. The objective is to enable access providers like mobile operators, Internet Service Providers (ISPs), Cable TV operators, content providers to launch various services such as applications like e-health, e-education and e-governance in rural and remote India. The project was approved by Union Cabinet on 25.10.2011. The project is being executed by a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) namely Bharat Broadband Network Limited (BBNL).

Bharat Net Phase-I: The Union Cabinet on 25.10.2011 approved the project for the creation of the National Optical Fibre Network (NOFN, now BharatNet) to provide broadband connectivity at the Gram Panchayat (GP) level by connecting block headquarters (BHQs) to GPs by using existing fibre of Central Public Sector Undertakings (CPSUs) such as Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), RailTel Corporation of India Limited (RailTel) and Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (PGCIL) and laying incremental fibre to bridge the connectivity gap up to the GPs. The Government owns the incremental Optical Fibre Cable (OFC), and the ownership of the existing fibre was to be continued to be vested with the current owners. This was considered Phase-I of BharatNet. 

Phase-I was completed in December 2017 with implementation in over 1 lakh GPs. Subsequently, the scope of Phase-I was expanded to 1.25 lakh GPs (Revised work front Phase-I) as per the Cabinet approval of 19.07.2017.

BharatNet Phase-II: The Cabinet approved a modified strategy for BharatNet on 19.07.2017, which integrates the implementation experience of Phase-I of the project and aligns it with the vision of Digital India. The modified strategy provides an optimal mix of media (OFC, Radio and satellite) to connect Gram Panchayats (GPs). Under Phase II, GPs are to be connected through multiple implementing models like State-led Model, Private Sector Model and CPSU Model, along with Last Mile connectivity in GPs through Wi-Fi or any other suitable broadband technology. Various States covered under different models of Phase II are:

State-Led Model: 8 states are being implemented under this model. Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Telangana are at various stages of implementation.

CPSU-Led Model: Under this model, BSNL is executing works in four states and union territories. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim are at various stages of implementation.

Private Led Model: Punjab and Bihar have implemented the private sector model directly by BBNL. Work has almost been completed in both states.

Satellite: The satellite component of Phase II is being implemented by BBNL and BSNL. BSNL is implementing 1408 GPs and BBNL is implementing 3753 GPs.

BharatNet Phase- III: Under the BharatNet Phase-III scheme, the government plans to lay a total of 2.5 lakh kilometers of optic fiber cables in order to connect all gram panchayats to the internet. This will involve the deployment of fiber-optic cables in both urban and rural areas, with a focus on providing connectivity to unserved and underserved areas. The government expects that the BharatNet Phase-III scheme will have a number of benefits for the people of India. It will help to bridge the digital divide between urban and rural areas, and provide people living in rural areas with access to the same information and opportunities as those living in urban areas. This will be especially important for small businesses, which will be able to use the internet to reach a larger market and grow their businesses.

The government also hopes that the BharatNet Phase-III scheme will have a number of other benefits for the country as a whole. It will help to improve the quality of education in rural areas, as students will be able to access a wider range of educational resources online. It will also make it easier for people living in rural areas to access healthcare services, as they will be able to connect with doctors and healthcare providers online. Overall, the BharatNet Phase-III scheme is a promising development for India.

Common Service Centres: Collaborative Framework for Delivery of Services to Citizens  

Common Services Centre (CSC) programme is an initiative of the Ministry of Electronics & IT (MeitY), Government of India. CSCs are the access points for delivery of various electronic services to villages in India, thereby contributing to a digitally and financially inclusive society.

CSCs are more than service delivery points in rural India. They are positioned as change agents, promoting rural entrepreneurship and building rural capacities and livelihoods. They are enablers of community participation and collective action for engendering social change through a bottom-up approach with key focus on the rural citizen.

CSC e-Governance Services India Limited is a Special Purpose Vehicle (CSC SPV) incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), Government of India, to monitor the implementation of the Common Services Centers Scheme. It provides a centralized collaborative framework for delivery of services to citizens through CSCs, besides ensuring systemic viability and sustainability of the scheme.

The CSCs would provide high quality and cost-effective video, voice and data content and services, in the areas of e-governance, education, health, telemedicine, entertainment as well as other private services. A highlight of the CSCs is that it will offer web-enabled e-governance services in rural areas, including application forms, certificates, and utility payments such as electricity, telephone and water bills. 

The partners include Village Level Entrepreneur (VLE) to provide service to the rural consumer in villages. The agency designated by the State - State Designated Agency (SDA)—to facilitate implementation of the Scheme within the State. Others include central ministries, their departments and other central agencies to offer various services to the citizens and partner banks (public and private sector) and regional rural banks to enable CSCs to become Banking Correspondent Agents / Customer Service Points to deliver various banking and financial services.

Mid-Day Scheme: Community Participation Initiative

With a view to enhance enrolment, retention and attendance and simultaneously improving nutritional levels among children, the National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE) was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme on 15th August 1995, initially in 2408 blocks in the country. By the year 1997-98 the NP-NSPE was introduced in all blocks of the country. It was extended in 2002 to cover children studying in centres running under the Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) and Alternative & Innovative Education (AIE) Scheme and Madarsas/Maktab. The scheme has been further extended to Upper Primary Schools in 2006-07. Since, 2009-10 the scheme covers children studying in National Child Labour Project (NCLP) Schools also.

Role of civil society organisations:

The Government of India encourages civil society organisations to participate by providing enough support in order to enhance the benefits of mid-day meals. These include:

• Avoiding classroom hunger

• Increasing school enrolment

• Increasing school attendance

• Improving caste socialisation, 

• Addressing malnutrition and 

• Empowering women through employment.

This is the most widespread practice. In the decentralised model, meals are cooked on-site by local cooks and helpers or Self help Groups. This system has the advantage of being able to serve local cuisine, providing jobs in the area, and minimizing waste. It also allows for better monitoring (e.g., by parents and teachers). In total, the MDM Scheme employs over 2.5 million cooks/food preparers (referred to as cooks-cum-helpers), usually providing a small honorarium for their work (equal to approximately US$14 per month).

In the absence of adequate infrastructure (such as kitchen sheds, utensils etc.), it can lead to accidents and maintaining hygiene can be difficult. In 2004, 87 children died when the thatched roof of a classroom was ignited by sparks from a cooking fire. In 2011, a child died after succumbing to burn injuries she sustained after accidentally falling into a cooking vessel.

Social Audits

Today the public is well aware and informed about their rights. They demand transparency and accountability from their elected officials. Social audits, citizen feedback mechanisms, and sustainability reporting are being extensively used in India to evaluate government performance and implementation of programmes. This also ensures that they are meeting the needs of their citizens. Social audits are powerful tool that helps government and civil society organisations to promote accountability, transparency, and good governance. It is a process of evaluating and assessing the impact of social and economic policies and programs. As part of the audit, information is collected from various stakeholders and analysed to understand the social, environmental, and economic effects of policies and programs.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is a social protection programme in India that aims at ‘enhancing livelihood security by providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work’. (Government of India 2008). It also builds in a unique social audit mechanism for monitoring. MGNREGA is a powerful instrument in the hands of poor, who can hold the government accountable for falling short of its promises. Besides being largest social protection programme in the developing world, it also holds unique distinction of inbuilt social audits to assess the implementation of the programme.  The social audit is a mandatory post implementation exercise that aims to monitor all projects under MGNREGA at least once every six months. However, it can also be understood in a broader sense, as a continuous process of public vigilance to ensure accountability in the implementation of projects, laws and policies by the community as whole. One simple form of social audit is a public assembly, where all the details of a project are read out. But a more elaborate social audit could include an extensive inspection of status and quality of all works, scrutinising all documents and payments made, investigating discrepancies or grievances raised by the workers and passing resolutions or directions to remedy or investigate the matter, and discussing the findings in a specially convened Gram Sabha (village) an extensive inspection of status and quality of all works, scrutinising all documents and payments made, investigating discrepancies or grievances raised by the workers and passing resolutions or directions to remedy or investigate the matter, and discussing the findings in a specially convened Gram Sabha (village assembly).

Conclusion

Collaborative governance is a part of Indian governance process. In a large country like India democratic decentralisation has been in practice since long time. In times of disasters and natural calamities multiple stakeholders come together and support the government in providing relief and other services to the citizens. Various development programmes also involve stakeholders like private sector, Civil Society organisations, Community and religious organisations to offer services to the citizens. Collaborative governance especially in infrastructure development in railways, ports, civil aviation and roads have proved to be very successful and has helped the government provide better services to the citizens. 

Endnotes

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