Abstract

The origin of ‘Social Equity’ in Public Administration can be legitimately traced to 1968 Minnowbrook Conference that brought together young minds in public administration. The event marked the ‘Waldovian perspective’ to reconcile the discipline’s role in the context of social upheaval, and hence, this ‘New Public Administration’ differed ideologically-philosophically with the traditional public administration. The global pandemic has exposed the existing and persistent inequalities across societies. Moreover, such events have disastrous implications for people from lower-income group, women, elderly, informal workers, marginalised communities, children and specially-abled citizens, who often tend to suffer disproportionately. All public administrators, therefore, have an obligation to advance, strengthen and commit themselves towards social equity (American Society for Public Administration, 2013). In India, social inequalities are outcomes of inequalities in income, education, gender, caste, class, mental and physical abilities. For instance, marginalised communities like Dalits and Adivasis who are not able to get better jobs due to lack of access to proper education affects their social mobility and deepens the gap between rich and the poor, privileged and the marginalised. Thus, conceptualising the realities of the day in policies and implementation will prevent further deepening of disparities in political voice and influence, and lack of trust in government and its institutions. If social equity has to be made a high priority domain for India’s bureaucratic culture and be embedded into administrative decision-making, there is a need to interrogate whether the practice is regarded as a distinct administrative goal. While there exists significant clarity of the term, there is little evidence of its conceptualisation as a distinct academic understanding in India’s public policy-making, its assessment and impact. Based on a qualitative secondary review of existing scholarly writings, this paper aims to question two aspects. First, how the idea of social equity has influenced the actions and responses in public policy and administration in India, whose origin can be traced to the American Public Administration. Second, the state of academic engagement includes – research, advocacy and publication – in the domain of social equity in India.

Keywords: Social equity, policies, government, administration, trust.

Introduction

In the development of the theory and practice of public policy and administration, the emergence of social equity as an idea holds a particularly distinctive history. Beginning the 1968 landmark conference of young minds in public administration, famously known as the Minnowbrook Conference or Minnowbrook I, a pioneering term evolved to mark as one of the critiques of the conventional public administration. The ‘Waldovian perspective’ (indicating Dwight Waldo – the originator of the idea to hold such a conference) to reconcile the discipline’s role in the context of social upheaval, and hence ‘New Public Administration’ (NPA) differed ideologically-philosophically with the traditional public administration that gave attention to bureaucratic neutrality. Conventionally, classic public administration seeks to answer questions of efficiency or how can we offer more or better services with available resources?  on economy or how can we maintain our level of services while spending less money? In addition to these, New Public Administration also seeks to ask if a particular service enhances social equity. (Frederickson, 2010, p.7). Growing through the pandemic years until today, there has been considerable advancement towards a new approach to validate reasons for social equity in public administration scholarship within and across regions, including India. This paper attempts to examine how social equity as a core value has evolved over the years and how far has it shaped the contemporary practice to ensure equitable design and implementation of public policies and programmes to reduce or eliminate inequalities and marginalisation. Indeed, fostering social equity remains a ‘grand challenge’ (National Academy of Public Administration, 2017) for the 21st century public administration, particularly to bridge widespread societal divisions.

The global pandemic has exposed existing and persistent inequalities across societies. The vulnerability of lives and livelihood due to the ongoing crisis, along with rising hunger and malnourishment, loss of jobs and income, increased climate-induced risks, together demands that a genuine and responsive public administration considers not only better policies, procedures, and processes to build resilience, but also calls for better socio-emotional approach in policy choices to bring about comprehensive, durable and equitable systems that supports future management of inadvertent crisis. This is because, such events tends to have disastrous implications for people from lower-income group, women, elderly, informal workers, marginalised communities, children and differently-abled, who often tend to suffer disproportionately. All public administrators, therefore, have an obligation to advance and more importantly, commit themselves towards “strengthening social equity” (American Society for Public Administration, 2013) in such uncertain times and prevent disastrous outcomes for some more than others. However, ‘this obligation is not only limited to administration of laws in a fair manner, but is also about the attitude to actively seek to foster its spirit through moral leadership’ (Shafritz and Russell, 2005). Based on an extensive qualitative review of secondary literature, this paper traces the legacy of social equity in public policy and administration responses in India. Next, it attempts to understand if social equity can be made a high priority domain for India’s bureaucratic culture and be embedded into administrative decision-making, away from discretionary bias. This implies that there is a need to promote social equity as a distinct field of scholarship in India open for considerable research.  

Origin of Social Equity in Public Administration: An Overview

Equity and equality are often talked about interchangeably and there is little agreement on how both are distinct despite overlapping contents. Gooden (2015) observes that, equality implies a principle that is applied uniformly to all, while equity asserts justice and fair treatment for all (p. 372). As Guy and McCandless (2012, p.5) explain,

“the difference is one of nuance: while equality can be converted into a mathematical measure in which equal parts are identical in size or number, equity is a more flexible measure allowing for equivalency while not demanding exact sameness”.

The problem to construct a definitional paradigm in part is an outcome of the different disciplinary conceptions of the word (McSherry, 2013). In public administration, as Denhardt (2004) most profoundly puts it, the term “equity” includes,

“the correction of existing imbalances in the distribution of social and political values. In contrast to equal treatment for all, equity proposes that benefits be greater for those most disadvantaged”. (Gooden, 2015, p. 372)

Though the earliest mention of the term “equity” can be traced to classical management theory, the “description of equity was entirely internal, having to do with equitable or fair treatment of employees” (Frederickson, 2005, p. 31) and to that extent, “did not wrestle with the unique public administration challenges of equity in public policy or service delivery” (ibid.,). To specifically trace the origins in the theories of public administration, implies that the language and philosophy of social equity be defined in the foundational documents, for instance, The Study of Administration (1887), a pioneering essay by Woodrow Wilson – the former President of the United States and founder of American public administration.

The National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA) Standing Panel on Social Equity in Governance defines social equity as,

“The fair, just and equitable management of all institutions serving the public directly or by contract; the fair, just and equitable distribution of public services and implementation of public policy; and the commitment to promote fairness, justice, and equity in the formation of public policy”. (Woolridge and Bilharz, 2017, p. 2) (emphasis added)

In simple words, social equity essentially entails a readjustment of the ‘invisible ladder’ by recognising that different circumstances of individuals and groups necessitate appropriate distribution of resources and opportunities to bridge multifaceted societal differences and facilitate all towards a fair and durable outcome.

The tumultuous period of social turbulence in the United States during 1960s gave way to a series of deliberations to assess the relevance of public administration in the United States. It was increasingly realised that results of governmental policy and implementation were much better for some citizens than others (Frederickson, 2005, p. 31), and therefore it was crucial to revisit foundational values of ‘fairness, justice and equality’ or what Frederickson referred to as “social equity” (Frederickson, 2010, p. xiv).

While the Minnowbrook Conferences (1968-2008) have itself been an iconic forum for every generation of public administration, Minnowbrook I (1968) has an enduring relevance for the origin and development of a social equity perspective. The conference convened by Dwight Waldo and organized by three young specialists in the discipline of public administration – H. George Frederickson, Harry Lambright, and Frank Marini – became a first-of-its-kind initiative to systematise the pioneering knowledge of the theory and practice of social equity. The origin of social equity perspective is closely intertwined with the New Public Administration (NPA) movement. The idea of New Public Administration (NPA) calls for a proactive administrator with a desire for social equity to replace the traditional, impersonal, neutral bureaucrat. Frederickson (2010) maintains that “the newness is in the way the fabric is woven, not necessarily in the threads that are used, and in arguments as to the proper use of the fabric…” (p. 6). He proposed the inclusion of equity as a core value in public administration and often referred to it as the “third pillar” after efficiency and economy (Frederickson, 2005), under which “the focus will not only be on whether a program or policy is working, but for whom it works – a concept which he referred to as the “second question” (Woolridge and Bilharz, 2017, p. 2) or “for whom is the program effective or good?” (Frederickson, 2005, p. 35).  In the words of Frederickson (2005), “if politics is all about majority rule—and it is—then public administration should be all about seeing after the interests of minorities and the poor” (p. 38).

The State of Social Equity in India

The concept of equity and the application of social equity to public administration has had a long history in western societies. As Nalbandian (1989) argues, while the term is not an explicit constitutional value, it implies an interplay of fairness, right and justice (Guy and McCandless, 2012, p. 6). Given a strong colonial legacy with a weak political system and wide-ranging socio-economic disadvantages among individuals and communities in the post-independent period, India’s trajectory towards a democratic welfare state remained a work-in-progress. The country has historically been a centre of persistent and deepening social inequalities as a result of inequalities in access and opportunities in terms of income, education, gender, caste, class, mental and physical abilities. For instance, the historical and cultural exclusion of individuals who belong to Dalit and Adivasi communities have legitimised the continued deprivation of such groups of, for example, better dignified jobs, due to lack of access to quality education, apart from other critical socio-psychological support, which eventually affects their upward social mobility and gradually perpetuates an inherently unequal social order. Thus, conceptualising the realities of the day in policies and implementation will prevent further deepening of disparities in political voice and influence, and lack of trust in government and its institutions (Lee, 2021). As Wooldridge and Bilharz (2017) observes, inequity “corrodes social bonds, erodes friendship, diminishes civic participation, and attenuates trust in government” (p. 3). In response to this perception, a more accurate understanding of social hierarchy with a focus on intersectionality demands the development of a “social equity lens” (Guy and McCandless, 2012, p. 9).

Historical and Policy Dimensions in Inequality: Locating the “social equity” lens

Johnson and Svara (2011) describe social equity as ‘a commitment to attack disparity and advance equality for people in groups that have been (or in the future might be) subject to treatment that is inferior, prejudicial, or hostile’ (p. 281) – a solution to address disparities and inequities in a social system. The reference to ‘equity’ has many dimensions. It includes the ability to access social services and economic opportunities, as well as equity in outcomes. Thus, social equity perspective of public administration in India has conventionally emphasised on Socially and Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs) women’s development, grassroots democratic participation, and improving service delivery. Over the years, the disproportionate outcomes have come to define and aggravate existing, entrenched inequities in access to digital technologies, healthcare, housing and sanitation, education, transportation, justice delivery, water supply, energy, income, and opportunity which forms part of contemporary commitment.

The very inception of the idea of social equity in the politics and ethics of a newly independent India was most profoundly visible in the constitutional system of governance which ‘envisioned an accommodative, socially sensitive, inclusive, and aspirational society that guaranteed to all citizens, equality, justice and liberty, as a non- negotiable duty of the State’ (Sanil, 2023a, p. 268). Among the most researched and documented structures of inequality in India includes those that reflects the outcomes of historical exclusion and marginalisation among vulnerable social groups, particularly the “ex-untouchables” or the present-day official category of Scheduled Castes (SCs). The wide-ranging provisions of the Indian Constitution prohibits discrimination against, and attempts to expand participation of, such communities in social, political and economic life in alignment with the idea of equal rights and opportunities for all citizens. The policy of positive discrimination for the disadvantaged sections also became a critical institutional measure to redistribute access to resources and opportunities. Further, the imperative of welfare and developmental goals necessitated introduction of specific programmes and schemes for the historically marginalised sections. What has, however, remained limited is a comprehensive review on the idea of ‘equity’ more aggressively in designing the framework of social policies (Sanil, 2023b, p.1). More importantly, as has been argued “while there exists a constant challenge to maintain equity, the failure to recognise underlying operative dimensions of social marginality, caused as an outcome of India’s social structure of caste system renders multiple governance deficiencies” (Sanil, 2023c, p. 63). The first step in the transition towards equity in the design of policy process therefore, is to recognise the existence of intersectional exclusion and its vicious influence to perpetuate an unequal social system, if unaddressed. It is important for decision-makers to realise that differences in needs, problems and experiences are specific to individuals and communities, and, in order to enhance service delivery and citizen engagement it is crucial to address these challenges equitably.

Social Equity Education and Research in India: Prospects and Challenges 

There is a growing academic teaching and research expertise on social equity issues around the world. It is revealing to suggest that in India this situation is not only hard to fully identify but equally difficult to measure appropriately. While the concept finds mention in nearly all public administration programmes, what is perhaps missing is the intention of its relevance in the curricula among both faculty and students – the uncertainty to locate an in-depth coverage of the topic. As Svara and Brunet (2004) observe, ‘how equity is addressed in public administration courses and what they communicate to students about it are central concerns to better measure its position in the discipline’ (p. 99). Its salience can be best articulated if students, instructors, and researchers alike understand what it means to promote social equity and how this value can be incorporated into action (ibid., p. 108). Interestingly, about a decade ago the observation that there is a consistent lack of opportunities for doctoral students or faculty members to find an academic posting that calls for research and teaching expertise in this subfield remains a pertinent point to understand within the Indian academic space as well (Johnson III, 2011, p. 163). It is imperative to build a perception that social equity education and research is significant to address the diverse implications of inequity and learn how public administrators response can potentially create inclusive policies and practices.

In this context, recent research in India, among other significant ones, has considered detailed studies and writings on contemporary challenges, including the need to ensure social equity in healthcare access and outcomes (Acharya, 2018), equity in the Indian education system (Singh, et.al., 2023), access to basic social and economic services (Mohan, Sekhani and Vaid, 2018), the role of mainstreaming an intersectional lens to develop more equitable climate solutions (Adhikari and Shetty, 2023), the need to determine a social equity index to demonstrate how social identities influence law enforcement in India (Mukhopadhyay, Desouza and Lolayekar, 2023), and framing the concept of intergenerational equity (Sanil, 2023c).

Further, Guy and McCandless (2012, p. 56) and Gooden (2015) have meticulously traced the legacy of social equity research in the official journal of American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) – Public Administration Review (PAR) – since the establishment of the journal in 1940 and after the Minnowbrook Conference (1968) to assess the resonance of social equity in academic learning and advocacy. Following on the methodology adopted in both studies, it will be interesting to summarise the observations across journals globally. A count of articles that included the term “social equity” using JSTOR’s advanced search function in journals on the discipline of public policy and administration reveals that nearly 6,782 articles were published between 1970-2020 that mentioned either the term “social”, “equity” or more accurately, “social equity”, though it was not always intended to focus on the subject explicitly. This is nearly 5 per cent of the total articles published during the period, and 7 per cent (252 academic articles from overall 3464 on the issue) between 2020-2023 on the theme. To be clear, in a majority of these articles the emphasis was varied. For instance, review of the concept in administrative theory, its significance in public affairs education, and dimensions of its application in public provision of the use and management of collective resources such as drinking water systems or urban commons, and its influence on diverse sections of population. A similar analysis can also be conducted to examine the past issues of the Indian Journal of Public Administration (IJPA) – one of the first dedicated journal on public administration in India – allows us to observe that during 1970-2020, a close to 540 research articles included the term social equity directly or indirectly. This accounts to nearly 1 per cent of all academic articles published during the same period (50,818 articles on social equity during 1970-2020) across disciplines, and about 38 per cent of publications on social equity specifically within the discipline of public administration. More recently, 0.3 per cent (44 articles) of the total 13,020 interdisciplinary articles on social equity have been published over the last three years (2020-2023) in the journal as interpreted from the search results of Sage Journals. This reflect the past trends in the field’s scholarship and informs the future direction of peer-reviewed journals to consistently advance publications specifically related to research or practices that involve a social equity perspective.

It is equally interesting to highlight that a careful analysis based on a simple technique of random internet search on existing initiatives that promote social equity research suggests that there exists two prominent centres in India (excluding the premier institution in public administration and management – the Indian Institute of Public Administration) for training, research and knowledge exchange in the domain – The Ramalingaswami Centre on Equity & Social Determinants of Health at the Public Health Foundation of India (PHFI) and the Centre for Social Equity and Inclusion (CSEI). While the former aims to “contribute to efforts to improve the health of India’s population by reducing health inequalities, focussing particularly on socioeconomically disadvantaged groups” (Public Health Foundation of India [PHFI], n.d.), the latter is a “people-centred organisation passionately committed to social equity and inclusion in our body politic by enhancing the enjoyment of social, economic, cultural (SEC) rights by socially excluded communities” (Centre for Social Equity and Inclusion [CSEI], n.d.). Structured as an independent foundation, both strive to promote and advocate equity for all sections of India’s population. Not surprisingly, there is an urgent need, however, to assess the reasons that prevent the development of favourable norms and policies that may actively promote independent, non-partisan academic thinking, research and teaching potential of public administration in general, and social equity as a subfield in particular, in the country.

Conclusion

Social equity provides a unique analytical framework of research to approach the concept in the background of contemporary challenges of structural inequality and exclusion, ‘not only in the normative philosophy of public administration, but also as a guide for the ethical behaviour of public servants’ (Gooden, 2015, p. 373). Throughout the paper the purpose has been to demonstrate that identification of social characteristics that define personal identity such as caste, gender, sexual orientation, and characteristics that shape unintended circumstances such as income, place of residence, or disability are significant to address the “social” aspect of equity (Johnson and Svara, 2011, p. 17) as the concept aims to equalize resources and reduce systemic inequalities. In this respect, Frederickson (2010) rightly points out that, “the rationale for public administration is almost always better (more efficient or economical) management. New public administration adds social equity to the classic objectives and rationale. Conventional or classic public administration seeks to answer either of these questions: (1) How can we offer more or better services with available resources (efficiency)? or (2) How can we maintain our level of services while spending less money (economy)? New public administration adds this question: Does this service enhance social equity?” (p.7).

As is argued here, the literature and application of social equity as a notable field of inquiry has received little attention as a distinct subfield in education and research of public administration in India. It continues to have a small voice within academics and practitioners alike. The complex, unique and intersecting nature of opportunities and challenges in India indicates the need to constantly innovate, adopt and disseminate a reformed vision of social equity in alignment with the traditionally constructed domain of public administration and administrators. While this paper is a theoretical re-examination on the idea of social equity and if it can be embedded in teaching, research and practice, perhaps, the question that becomes most relevant now is this: Does India have an indigenous tradition of social equity dialogue and scholarship? Until 1998, the 20-year Minnowbrook cycle witnessed an American-centric participation – an exercise in the field of public administration isolated from the rest of the world. Gradually, change became visible during 1998-2008 when non-American scholarship emerged from Europe, Asia, Australia and New Zealand, as other countries began to introduce higher education programmes and research in the domain (Bowornwathana, 2010, p.S65). Since then, the international breed of scholars across the world have contributed to build a legacy of collaborative knowledge, experience and methodological innovation to enrich a global community of “third-wave scholars” (ibid., p.S66). As can be proposed, therefore, this shall bring a positive direction to the Minnowbrook IV conference scheduled in the year 2028. Nonetheless, for India, it offers an even greater opportunity to carefully systematise, develop and reinvent a body of knowledge to coordinate ideas, concerns, and alternative approaches to problem-solving towards a cross-country excellence in contemporary and future action plans.

Notes

In the seminal piece General Principles of Management (1916), Henri Fayol identified equity as one of the fourteen principles of management.

The National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA) identified social equity as the fourth pillar of public administration along with economy, efficiency, and effectiveness (Woolridge and Bilhraz, 2017, p. 2)

Across the world, there are individuals and groups whose prevailing life opportunities are determined by their socio-cultural identify, conditions of work or earning capabilities, and locational or geographic variations.  Such groups are commonly referred to as Socio-Economic Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs).

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