Introduction

Public policy in ancient India was not only crafted by emperors and royal councils but also shaped by regional practices, local texts, and community-based traditions. These instruments, spread across various domains like taxation, justice, welfare, and education, reveal a deeply embedded system of decentralized governance and ethical administration. Public policy was intricately linked to religious and ethical thought, emerging from a confluence of dharma (duty/ethics), artha (wealth/governance), and kama (desire). 

Regional literature and inscriptions provide valuable evidence of how ancient Indian societies developed and operationalized public policy mechanisms long before formal administrative theory was codified.

This chapter focuses on how literature in the vernacular languages of Sanskrit, Tamil, Pali, Prakrit and others fed into the language of governance, justice, welfare and statecraft. By examining several literary sources viz. the Tirukkural, Dhammapada, Jataka Tales, and medieval commentaries; it provides an informed insight into various models of localized government and their normative bases.

Stories poetry and treatises written in languages like Sanskrit, Tamil, Pali, and Prakrit shaped governance in ancient India, which was an art form , From the Cholas in the south to the Maurya’s in the north these regional literatures were the essence of how rulers ruled . These texts provide valuable insight into governance, justice, taxation, welfare, and civic ethics in various historical and cultural settings.

The regional literature of ancient India provides a deep and comprehensive understanding of governance and public policy. These writings which range from the Vedas to the Mahabharata Arthashastra and Manusmriti present a political philosophy based on dharma a concept that includes social order justice and righteousness. 

Ancient India’s regional literature which offers historical narratives for public policy and governance contains a wealth of preserved political thought. Examining ancient Indian public policy and governance provides an engaging way to look at the ethical systems administrative procedures and sociopolitical structures that influenced the subcontinents history. 

Studying regional literature such as inscriptions literary works and legal treatises offers priceless insights into the complex realities of governance beyond the grand narratives of empires. 

Regional literature presents a more nuanced picture of decentralized authority local customs and community participation in governance whereas traditional historical accounts frequently highlight centralized power and dynastic rule. In order to acknowledge the distinctive institutions and customs that defined ancient Indian polities this investigation requires a shift away from Eurocentric models of statecraft and citizenship (Washbrook 2019). 

By examining regional literature we can identify the precise processes that were used to manage resources settle conflicts and exercise power locally (Narlikar & Narlikar 2014). As portrayed in these foundational works, this chapter examines the ideas of kingship administrative frameworks legal theory economic strategies social order and institutional rituals. India like ancient Greece developed a sophisticated political thought landscape and established itself as one of the most advanced centers of political reflection in the Eastern world (Pellissery and Biswas 2012).

This chapter explores how ancient regional texts served as repositories of policy principles, governance strategies, and moral codes for rulers and administrators. It explores the lasting influence of these concepts and demonstrates how moral and pragmatic issues were entwined in ancient Indian governance.

Sanskrit Texts and the Art of Statecraft

Sanskrit, the classical language of ancient India, served as a sophisticated medium for both religious and intellectual discourse, primarily crafted for the elite class like priests, scholars, and rulers. It provided a robust framework for treatises that blended practical governance with philosophical insights, notably in texts like the Arthashastra and Dharmashastra. These works offered comprehensive guidance on administering kingdoms, encompassing pragmatic strategies for tax collection, economic management, and military campaigns, alongside ethical considerations for just rule (Olivelle, 2013). By articulating complex administrative and strategic principles, Sanskrit texts not only shaped the governance of ancient Indian polities but also reflected a profound interplay between temporal authority and philosophical ideals.

Vedic Foundations of Political Concepts in Ancient India

The Vedas are the oldest source of political ideas in Indian literature. Written between 1500 and 500 BCE they were primarily religious texts that also captured the social and political climate of their day.

Deliberative bodies like the Sabha and Samiti which promoted group decision-making are examples of how participatory governance and burgeoning monarchies coexisted in the society described in the Rig Veda (Turdiev and Kleiner 2024). 

A key idea in Vedic political philosophy is the idea of kingship which has religious overtones. The Raja was entrusted with upholding social and cosmic harmony in addition to serving as a political leader and a defender of dharma.

According to Banerjea (1916) this sacred aspect of kingship combined political and spiritual authority giving the rulers authority legitimacy through adherence to moral and religious obligations. Thus the Vedas established fundamental rules for governance in ancient India fusing political leadership with religious duties.

The Arthashastra: Strategy, Statecraft and the Art of Ruling

The Arthashastra originated in the Mauryan heartland of North India but its ideas had an impact on later dynasties like the Guptas and Satavahanas whose inscriptions show its administrative and economic principles (Thapar 2002). Chanakyas Arthashastra is a foundational work on statecraft that has remained relevant in ancient Indian polities because of its comprehensive framework for governance economic management justice diplomacy and strategic influence. Five key components of a successful state were highlighted in this Sanskrit literary classic: (i) effective public administration (ii) economic prosperity (iii) social welfare (iv) successful diplomacy and (v) military readiness. 

According to the Arthashastra, maintaining order and prosperity requires effective management of the state which is a complex organism. In order to keep power it promotes the use of intelligence networks and practical measures such as lying when required. It displays an advanced view of governance by emphasizing accountability merit-based appointments and economic development (Kamat and Kamat 2021). Fairness fiscal federalism tax structure stability and avoiding high taxes were all stressed in Kautilyas taxation tenets. In addition to stressing maintaining tax compliance and offering subsidies to promote capital formation the system subtly advocated a linear income tax. 

Acknowledging the difficulties of enforcing justice in a multicultural society the Arthashastra offers comprehensive protocols for investigation trial and punishment. Kautilya’s ideas are still relevant to modern economists policy-making. Similar to a contemporary executive manual for managing infrastructure intelligence and resources the text outlines a complex bureaucratic structure in terms of administration designating positions like the samaharta (revenue collector) and samnidhata (treasurer) to ensure effective state operations (Sharma 2009). 

A proactive intelligence system to inform the ruler is highlighted by Chanakyas focus on a network of informants which is reminiscent of an early intelligence agency. According to Rangarajan (1992), the Arthashastra emphasizes the importance of having a strong treasury and supports taxing farmers traders and artisans while warning against imposing excessive taxes in order to preserve subjects allegiance and economic output. 

Additionally it supports state-run businesses like mining in an effort to boost the economy. A thorough legal framework covering everything from land disputes to marriage contracts is also provided by the treatise. Penalties differ according to social standing reflecting a desire for justice that is restrained by hierarchical considerations. 

Its theory conceptualizes international relations as concentric circles of allies and adversaries (Boesche 2002). 

The texts significance as a fundamental manual for statecraft in ancient India is highlighted by its enduring legacy.

Ruling by Dharma: The Governance Principles of the Dharmashastras

The Dharmashastras, particularly the Manusmriti combined ethics law and tradition to help rulers in ancient India create a society that was just and peaceful. Through the frameworks of varna (caste) and ashrama (life stages) these texts outlined societal duties and established a structured social order that kings were entrusted with upholding. This frequently reinforced hierarchical caste distinctions (Doniger and Smith 1991). 

The Manusmriti offered comprehensive legal procedures for settling conflicts from theft to family disputes with the king serving as the final arbiter. Class-differentiated punishments were applied with the goal of re-establishing social equilibrium rather than merely exacting revenge. 

The Dharmashastras provided economic guidance on fiscal policies including land and trade taxes while highlighting the kings responsibility to uphold Brahmins and religious institutions in order to strike a balance between material wealth and spiritual duties. 

As demonstrated by South Indian Chola inscriptions which show land grants influenced by Tamil cultural practices but inspired by Dharmashastric principles regional adaptations were widespread despite the codes intended universality (Stein 1980). 

Epics: Stories That Shaped Kings

The Ramayana and Mahabharata two Indian epics are foundational texts that combine moral philosophy with pragmatic statecraft in ancient India to express ideals of governance and kingship. Both epics emphasize the kings function as a guardian servant and arbiter of justice.  Both texts were originally written in Sanskrit, but over centuries they have been adapted, translated and localized into various regional languages. With each adaptation, the narratives were reshaped to mirror local cultural values, social concerns, and ethical frameworks. 

For example, the Kamba Ramayanam, written in the 12th century CE by the Tamil poet Kambar, wove Tamil customs, traditions, and moral codes into the epic, making it resonate with his audience. However, regional reinterpretations such as Kambar’s Tamil version allowed the epics to transcend linguistic and geographic boundaries, influencing South Indian dynasties like the Cholas and Vijayanagara rulers (Narayana Rao 1991).

In Assam, Madhava Kandali’s Kotha Ramayana highlighted themes of equality and communal welfare. In Bengal, the Krittibas Ramayana reimagined Sita with a stronger and more independent voice, highlighting gender justice and ethical dilemmas in kingship. Kannada poets such as Kumaravyasa reinterpreted the Mahabharata to focus on dharma and social ethics, connecting divine principles with the responsibilities of earthly rulers.

Rama is portrayed in the Ramayana as the ideal king, fulfilling his father’s promise and protecting his people, showing that true leadership means placing duty (dharma) above personal desires (Pollock 1986).

The Mahabharata contains extensive discussions on governance. It situates governance within the moral framework of dharma, emphasizing the king’s duty to protect subjects, administer justice, and promote prosperity. The epic underscores that the king’s power is contingent on moral conduct and service to the welfare of the people. The importance of wise counsel, consultation, and deliberation in governance is repeatedly stressed. This reflects a sophisticated understanding of political accountability and the balance of power (Banerjea,1916).

The Mahabharata stresses that failure to deliver justice undermines the king’s legitimacy. It advocates fair trials, evidence-based judgments, and the involvement of wise counselors in judicial decisions. The Mahabharata addresses practical governance issues such as resource management, warfare, diplomacy, and the treatment of enemies. It warns against tyranny and highlights the need for just and prudent leadership, blending ethics with political realism (Altekar, 1958).

It also examines the difficulties of governance emphasizing the moral quandaries that arise when ruling as Krishna leads the Pandavas through difficult diplomatic and military choices. It provides a thorough discussion of governance covering fair taxation military tactics and moral leadership. 

Governance Ideals in Tamil Literature

Poetry ethics and the fundamentals of governance were all interwoven in the literary traditions of the Chera Chola and Pandya kingdoms which spanned the Sangam period and beyond. They were much more than just works of art. 

Sangam literature which includes works such as Purananuru, Akananuru and Tolkappiyam is a fundamental component of this tradition. The foundation of Tamil literary expression was established by Tolkappiyam a treatise on grammar and poetics that quietly incorporated moral standards for both rulers and subjects. 

The order and discipline expected of a just king were reflected in its structured insights into language and aesthetics. In the meantime the bravery and generosity of Tamil kings were preserved in Purananuru a compilation of heroic poems. Chieftains were described by poets as having the lions zeal for defending their people and the monsoon clouds generosity in sharing their wealth to ensure that prosperity spread throughout their realm. In addition to being a public record of a rulers value these verses held monarchs responsible for upholding the principles of porul (wealth and governance) and aram (virtue).

In the Akananuru love poems and war ballads exposed the human side of government blending the political and personal. In a way that elevated the responsibilities of rulers and humanized them the promise made by a lover to protect his beloved was akin to the duty of a king to defend his territory. These collections served as both entertainment and a forum for cultural discussion influencing how the general public views leaders. 

As society’s conscience poets who played lutes or recited passionately praised kings who upheld justice and quietly criticized those who did not. Even after the Sangam period, Tamil literature continued to influence governance with moral couplets such as Thiruvalluvars Tirukkural. 

The leadership couplets highlighted the traits that characterized the ideal Tamil king: compassion, justice and strategic foresight. For instance Thiruvalluvar counseled rulers to ensure that wealth was earned and distributed fairly to govern with wisdom rather than tyranny and to be personable but authoritative. 

As kings were supposed to uphold dharma (order) in their realms by exhibiting virtues, found resonance in the courts of the Chera Chola and Pandya dynasties. These texts honor the Chera ,Chola and Pandya kings who ruled with a rigorous understanding of their literary and cultural traditions. In addition to serving as administrative centers their courts were thriving hubs of patronage where scholars and poets were valued advisors. The Chola port city of Puhar where trade art and governance came together under a kings watchful eye is vividly described in the Sangam poem Pattinappalai. 

These writings reaffirmed the notion that a rulers legacy was correlated with both cultural patronage and military prowess. For example the Pandyas received praise for their encouragement of Tamil poets creating a literary culture that disseminated and preserved the principles of good governance for future generations. Poetry served as a medium for the cultural ethos that the Chera Chola and Pandya kingdoms all shared despite their differences. 

The ability of the local chieftains and kings to maintain peace and prosperity by striking a balance between diplomacy and war was praised. Purananuru poetry frequently showed kings settling conflicts through pacts or lavish tributes demonstrating a practical style of government that prioritized stability over conquest. In summary Tamil literature actively shaped governance rather than merely reflecting it. 

Tirukkural: Wisdom in Couplets

Thiruvalluvar wrote the Tirukkural, a foundational Tamil text of more than one thousand couplets that provide timeless instructions on morality government and human behavior.

A ruler who protects his people with justice and compassion will be revered forever according to one famous couplet (Diaz 2001) summarizing a leadership concept that is still applicable in modern governance. In order to promote inclusive societal welfare the text places a strong emphasis on compassionate statecraft and advocates for laws that support education support the poor and guarantee fair legal procedures (Subramanian 1989).

 As a practical guideline for economic stability the Tirukkural suggests balanced taxation to maintain state operations without placing an undue burden on citizens. Its impact can be seen historically in the Chola and Pandya kingdoms governance where leaders applied its teachings to enact judicial reforms and temple grants incorporating its moral code into South Indian administrative procedures (Subramanian 1989). 

The timeless advice of the Tirukkural not only influenced Tamil politics in antiquity but also provides important guidance for fair and efficient government today.

Pali and Prakrit Literature: The Path of Peace 

The Pali and Prakrit Buddhist and Jain writings offered a unique viewpoint on governance stressing kindness , ahimsa (non-violence) and moral leadership. Mostly written in Prakrit Jain texts like the Kalpa Sutra, Acharanga Sutra and Bhagavati Sutra had a significant impact on ancient Indian governance by highlighting ahimsa (non-violence) moral behavior and self-control as the pillars of just governance. These ideas had a significant influence on the administrative procedures of ancient Indian states like Magadha, Gujarat and Karnataka. Books such as the Buddhist Dhammapada and the Jain Acaranga Sutra urged leaders to put their subjects well-being and moral character ahead of military or authoritarian methods (Gombrich 2006, Dundas 2002).

In addition to urging rulers to govern with detachment humility and respect for life the Acharanga Sutra one of the oldest Jain texts advocates for policies that support vegetarianism, animal welfare and the protection of ascetics. It also advocates for non-violence toward all beings including minute life forms (Jaini 1979). 

Similarly the Bhagavati Sutra encourages kings to put righteousness first in order to maintain social stability by highlighting moral governance through stories that show the karmic repercussions of unjust rule. Inspired by these teachings Jain rulers supported dharmashalas schools libraries and temples. This allowed them to conserve their culture and promote education while incorporating ahimsa into public policy by encouraging charity and reducing war (Cort 2001). 

Based on Dharmashastras the Manusmriti and Vedic texts the Brahmanical framework supported an organized form of government. This varna-based hierarchical model was based on the kings function as the protector of dharma which was maintained by rigorous caste hierarchy and ceremonial authority. 

On the other hand the Jain and Buddhist traditions as expressed in Pali and Prakrit offered opposing and frequently revolutionary viewpoints. The Brahmin classs domination was contested by these traditions which placed a higher value on moral conduct nonviolence equality and caring leadership than on customs and inherited rank (Gombrich, 2006, Warder, 2000, Jaini, 1979).

Ashoka the Buddhist ruler of Magadha for example enacted welfare-oriented policies such as environmental preservation and public works projects after being influenced by these teachings (Thapar 2002). 

Their texts, particularly in regional languages, reflect a more inclusive, moral, and welfare-oriented vision of the state. These traditions did not just influence individual rulers like Ashoka or Jain kings, but also shaped grassroots governance, ethical codes of administration, and community-level welfare practices.

The Dhammapada and Ideal Kingship

Deep insights into moral responsibility and ethical governance can be gained from Buddhist literature especially the Dhammapada. It promotes a political structure based on Dhamma, the cosmic law or the righteous path and holds that social harmony depends on just governance (Gethin 1998). According to the Dhammapada, the ideal ruler prioritizes the well-being of all living things fosters compassion and tolerance and leads without fear or violence. 

Dhamma-rajas or kings who represent righteousness and rule by moral authority as opposed to force are what these leaders are known as (Harvey 2000). Emperor Ashoka whose metamorphosis following the Kalinga war , signaled a significant change in Indian political ethics served as an example of this ideal as analyzed by Thapar (1997) , Strong (1983),  and Barua (1946).

The Digha Nikayas Mahaparinibbana Sutta which details the Vajjian confederacy a republican polity in modern-day Bihar provides additional proof of participatory governance in ancient India (Walshe 1987). The Buddha praised its respect for common laws frequent gatherings and group decision-making. He underlined that these consultative mechanisms supported the stability and longevity of the state. This early democratic form of government exemplifies the progressive administrative principles ingrained in early Buddhist thought by reflecting a pluralistic inclusive and moral framework that contrasts with centralized monarchies.As community centers Buddhist monasteries especially in Mauryan and Kushan territories mediated conflicts and disbursed aid promoting grassroots justice (Gombrich 2006). 

Policy like Ashoka’s tax exemptions for religious communities which supported social equity were influenced by the Dhammapadas emphasis on fair resource distribution (Warder 2000). Monks throughout North and Central India spread these writings which urged monarchs to put compassion and moral leadership first turning kingdoms into more compassionate political systems. Buddhist values were woven into the very fabric of ancient Indian statecraft by these stories which were far from merely moral tales. 

Medieval Bhakti Literature and Ethical Governance

A spiritual and sociocultural force that flourished throughout India ,the Bhakti movement, promoted devotional worship a close relationship with the divine and inner purity over ritualism and caste hierarchies. It also subtly reshaped governance through moral critique (Hawley 1984). 

Figures such as Basavanna, Kabir, and Tukaram illustrate how Bhakti poetry, which is composed in regional languages like Hindi, Kannada, Marathi, Tamil, Bengali, and Telugu, have challenged social and political hierarchies. (Lorenzen 1995).

Unlike Kabir, who highlighted honesty and compassion, Basavanna used his Vachanas to denounce unjust state practices and to promote equality, open discussion, and the dignity of work through the Anubhava Mantapa (Hess and Singh 1983).

Tukaram’s Abhangas often mocked flaws in administration and the hypocrisy of the elite, imagining instead a society that was guided by moral values rather than rigid hierarchies (Chitre 1991).

The legacy of the movement is still felt in contemporary India where Bhakti ideals continue to influence discussions of social justice and civic virtue and inform policies such as reservation systems moral governance frameworks and inclusive education (Schomer & McLeod 1987). 

Conclusion

Ancient Indian literature composed in Sanskrit, Tamil, Pali, and Prakrit offered a shared yet diverse vision of governance. Across regions, it stressed ethical leadership, community involvement, economic balance, and justice rooted in cultural and moral values. The idea of righteous rule, expressed as dharma in Sanskrit or aram in Tamil, placed responsibility above power, portraying kings not as rulers for their own gain but as caretakers of society (Olivelle, 2013).

This principle is clearly reflected in works such as the Ramayana, where Rama’s sacrifices symbolize selfless duty, and in the Tirukkural, where Thiruvalluvar’s concise verses set moral standards for leaders based on compassion and wisdom (Subramanian, 1989).

Local governance also found support in literature. Institutions like northern panchayats and southern sabhas drew inspiration from ideals of shared decision-making, as suggested in the Arthashastra and Tamil Sangam works like Purananuru (Thapar, 2002). These assemblies gave communities a voice, reinforcing the idea that leadership should be participatory.

 Economic policies, tailored to regional contexts, were also a recurring theme. The Arthashastra discussed fair taxation and trade practices suited to the Gangetic plains, while Tamil works such as Pattinappalai highlighted the role of maritime trade in the prosperity of southern kingdoms (Olivelle, 2013; Narayanan, 2016).

Justice (nyaya), closely tied to dharma, was seen as central to rule. The Manusmriti codified legal and social norms, making the king the highest judicial figure, with punishments varying by crime and social rank—a reflection of the hierarchical structures of the time (Olivelle, 2009).

At the same time, Buddhist and Jain texts like the Dhammapada and Acharanga Sutra offered alternative views, promoting compassion and non-violence. These perspectives often questioned rigid hierarchies and influenced rulers to adopt more humane and inclusive policies (Dundas, 2002).

Through narratives, poetry, and treatises, these texts set exemplary standards for leadership; shaping public expectations and fostering governance models that balanced moral integrity with practical administration. This rich literary tradition not only guided ancient rulers but also left an enduring legacy, informing contemporary Indian governance with principles of justice, equity, and community engagement.

Dharma-based governance models are articulated in texts like the Vedas, Mahabharata, Arthashastra and Manusmriti which balance moral obligations with pragmatic statecraft (Olivelle 2013). 

Various sources such as inscriptions oral traditions and regional literature demonstrate that ancient Indian public policy was governed by ethical principles decentralized institutions and codified norms rather than being capricious or autocratic (Thapar 2002). 

Tamil works like the Sangam poems and Tirukkural incorporated governance into local cultural pride stressing compassionate leadership while Sanskrit texts like the Arthashastra and Dharmashastras gave rulers legal and strategic frameworks for establishing empires (Subramanian 1989). 

By promoting empathy and non-violence Buddhist and Jain writings such as the Dhammapada and Acharanga Sutra further enhanced this environment and influenced compassionate laws in places like Magadha and Karnataka (Dundas 2002). 

Through their treatises poetry and stories these writings inspired entire communities to imagine just and prosperous societies that went beyond simple advice for monarchs. These literary traditions which are deeply rooted in philosophical ideas and cultural practices created long-lasting models of morally and socially responsible governance many of which are remarkably applicable to current Indian politics and highlight the enduring wisdom of Indias rich literary past.

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